Chapter 1 Flashcards
__ can lead us astray, __ __ similarly err
IntuitionCommon sense
Define hindsight bias (aka: I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)
Tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it
Describe the scientific attitude
Being skeptical but not cynical, open but not gullible. Show evidence. Requires humility to reveal nature’s truths
People tend to be ___. We are equally __ at predicting our social behavior. We __ our intuition, but __ __ can help sift reality from illusions
OverconfidentWrongOverestimateScientific inquiry
Scientific attitude is composed of __ , __ , & __
CuriositySkepticismHumility
Define critical thinking
Thinking that doesn’t blindly accept arguments & conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, & assesses conclusions
Define theory
An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations & predicts behaviors or events (simplifies things, offers useful summary)
Describe the scientific method
Make observations, form theories, refine theories with new observations
Define hypothesis
A testable prediction, often implied by a theory. Gives direction to research
Define replication
Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants & circumstances
When we urge to see what we expect, it is __ __
Subjective observations
Define operational definition
A statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables
What makes a good theory?
Organize & link observed facts & imply hypotheses that offer testable predictions & sometimes, practical applications
What are the 3 research types?
Descriptive, correlational, & experimental
Define case study
An observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
Define survey
A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them
Case studies suggest __ for further study. Individuals can be __, so we must use other methods
HypothesesAtypical
Survey answers depend on a question’s __ & choice of __
WordingRespondents
Define false consensus effect
The tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs & behaviors
Subtle changes to __ of questions may have large effects
Wording
Define population
All the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study
For an accurate picture of a population, must use a __ __
Representative sample
Define random sample
A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
Think critically & consider the __ before believing __ __
SampleSurvey findings
__ representative samples are better than __ ones
LargeSmall
The temptation to __ from a few vivid but __ cases is nearly irresistible
GeneralizeUnrepresentative
Define naturalistic observation
Observing & recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate & control the situation.
Goodall paved way for later studies of __ thinking, language, & emotion. Whiten & Byrne saw chimps and baboons use __ to achieve their aims
AnimalDeception
Naturalistic observations doesn’t __ behavior, it __ it
ExplainDescribes
Pace of life is fastest in __ & __ __ & in __ climates. Pace of life is slower in economically __ __ countries
Japan & Western EuropeColderLess-developed
Naturalistic observation can also be used with __ __
Correlational research
Define correlation
A measure of the extent to which 2 factors vary together, & thus of how well either factor predicts the other
Define correlation coefficient
Statistical measure of a relationship: reveals how closely 2 things vary together & how well either one predicts the other. Ranges from -1 to +1
Define scatterplot (aka: scatter gram & scatter diagram)
A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of 2 variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the 2 variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation
Little scatter indicates __ correlation
High
Define positive correlation
2 sets of scores tend to rise or fall together
Define negative correlation
2 things relate inversely (1 goes up, other goes down)
Positive and negative correlations have nothing to do with the __ or __. Correlation indicates a __ __
StrengthWeaknessStatistical relationship
We recall & notice instances that __ our beliefs. Illusory correlations explain ___. We ignore __ information. We __ ourselves by seeing correlation with a __ event when its not there
ConfirmSuperstitionsEssentialDeceiveRandom
Correlation indicates the possibility of a __ __ relationship, but it doesn’t prove __
Cause-effectCausation
Define illusory correlation
The perception of a relationship where none exists
To isolate cause and effect, psychologists statistically __ other factors & remove __
ControlDifferences
__ __ often don’t look random, & get over interpreted. Some events seem so __, we struggle to come up with an __. With a large enough sample, any __ thing is likely to happen
Random sequencesExtraordinaryExplanationOutrageous
Define experiment
A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (dependent variable).
By __ __ of participants, the experimenter aims to control other __ __ and hold constant other factors
Random assignmentRelevant factors
__ __ infants have higher intelligence scores than __ __ ones
Breast fedFormula fed
__ show naturally occurring relationships, __ manipulate factors. If a behavior changes when an __ factor is varied, then we know the factor is having an effect
CorrelationsExperimentsExperimental
Define double-blind procedure
Experimental procedure in which both the research participants & the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo
Double-blind procedure is commonly used in __ __ studies
Drug-evaluation
Define placebo effect
Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent
Define control condition
Condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition & serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment
Define experimental condition
Condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable
Define independent variable
The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied
Define random assignment
Assigning participants to experimental & control conditions by chance, thus minimizing pre existing differences between those assigned to different groups
Experiments help evaluate __ programs. They aim to manipulate an __ variable, measure the __ variable, & control all other __
SocialIndependentDependentVariables
Define dependent variable
The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable
Doubt __, __ numbers; apply statistical principles to __
Big, undocumentedReasoning
Researchers first task is to organize gathered __. Look at __ labels & __ on bar graphs because they can be misleading
DataScaleRanges
Define mode
The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution
Define a measure of central tendency
A single score that represents a whole set of scores
Define mean
The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores & then dividing by the number of scores
Define median
The middle score in a distribution; half above & half below
What are the 3 measures of central tendency?
Mode, mean, & median
A __ distribution makes the mean biased by a few __ scores
SkewedExtreme
Define standard deviation
A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
Averages from scores with __ variability are more reliable than averages based on scores with __ variability
LowHigh
Define range
The difference between the highest & lowest scores in a distribution
Measures of variation better gauge whether scores are __ __ or __
Packed togetherDispersed
__ samples are better than __ samples. __ __ observations are more reliable than those that are __ __. __ cases are better than __. Generalizations based on a few unrepresentative cases are __
RepresentativeBiasedLess-variableMore-variableMoreFewerUnreliable
When averages from 2 samples are reliable, then their difference is likely to be __. When averages are reliable & the difference is large, it’s __ __
ReliableStatistically significant
Define statistical significance
Statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
Statistical significance indicates the __ that a result will happen by __. Doesn’t indicate the __ of the result
LikelihoodChanceImportance
Experimenters intend labs to be a __ __. Purpose of experiments is not to __ __ exact behaviors, but to test __ __. Resulting principles help explain __ __.
Simplified realityRe-createTheoretical principlesMany behaviors
Psychologists concerns lie with __ __ that explain many __
General principlesBehaviors
Define culture
The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, & traditions shared by a large group of people & transmitted from one generation to the next
Psychologists study animals to understand how different species __, __, & __. Also to learn about __. Animal experiments lead to treatments for __ __
LearnThinkBehavePeopleHuman diseases
The same __ __ guide people everywhere. All languages share deep principles of __ even with variations. We are like __ others, __ others, & __ other
Underlying processesGrammarAllSomeNo
In conversations __ build relationships, __ give info and advice. __ & __ are overwhelmingly similar
WomenMenFemales & males
Issue: is it right to place well-being of __ above __. What __ should protect the animals?
HumansAnimalsSafeguards
Describe the animal protection movement
Protests use of animal in medical, biological, & psychological research. Advocate naturalistic observation over lab experiments
The issue with animal protection movement is compassion for __ vs compassion for __
AnimalsPeople
What are the guidelines set to protect animals?
Mandate ensuring comfort, health, & humane treatment of animals, & of minimizing infection, illness, & pain of animal subjects
What are the ethical principles set for experiments with people?
Obtain informed consent of potential participants, protect them from harm & discomfort, treat information about individual participants confidentially, & fully explain the research afterward
Most psychological research involves no __. Occasionally researchers temporarily use __ to understand violence
StressStress
Some see psychology as just __ __, others feel it’s becoming __ __
Common senseDangerously powerful
__ affect what we study, how we study it, & how we interpret results. __ describe & __ evaluate. Psychology can help us __ goals, but cannot __ which goals
ValuesLabelsLabelsReachChoose
Psychology has the power to __ but its purpose is to __. Psychologists explore ways to __ learning, creativity, & compassion. Psychology speaks to many __ __ & __ __
Deceive EnlightenEnhanceWorld problemsDeepest longings
Describe post-modernism
Questions scientific objectivity. Says scientific concepts are socially constructed fictions
Psychologists agree important questions lie beyond science’s __ & beliefs __ __, but they believe there’s a __ __ out there
ReachShape perceptionsReal world
Jurors in capital punishment cases don’t represent the __ __
Greater population
1954: decision declaring segregated schools unconstitutional was the first case in which __ __ participated actively
Social psychologists
Does the __ __ fall under constitution’s ban on cruel & unusual punishment? Court disregards __ __ research on __ & __ of it
Death penaltySocial scienceFairnessEffectiveness
Stats with a death penalty __ __ __ homicide rates. States without a death penalty haven’t seen __ in homicides
Don’t have lowerRises
Court persists in belief that the death penalty __ is a __ __
UndoubtedlySignificant deterrent
Skeptical __ & __ fuel all scientific endeavor
ScrutinyHumility
