Biochemistry - Important Concepts Flashcards
Amino acids in histones
Lysine and arginine
His lies made me go “argh!”
Nucleosome core
H2A, H2B, H3, H4
H1
Binds to the nucleosome and to linker DNA, stabilizing the chromatin fiber
During what phase of the cell cycle does histone synthesis occur?
S phase
Heterochromatin
Condensed and inactive
Euchromatin
Sterically accessible
Amino acids necessary for purine synthesis
GAG
Glycine
Aspartate
Glutamine
Leflunomide
Inhibits dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (carbamoyl phosphate + aspartate + PRPP –> orotic acid
Mycphenolate
Inhibits IMP dehydrogenase
My Ribald IMP
Ribavarin
Inhibits IMP dehydrogenase
My Ribald IMP
Hydroxyurea
Inhibits ribonucleotide reductase (which turns UDP –> dUMP or converts ribonucleotides to deoxyribonucleotides)
6-mercaptopurine
Inhibits de novo purine synthesis
Azathioprine
Inhibits de novo purine synthesis
Pyrimethamine
Inhibits dihyrofolate reductase and decreases dTMP
Mnemonic for pyrimidine base production
Gluttons crave carbs as oral porn
Glutamine Carbamoyl phosphate synthase II Carbamoyl phosphate Aspartate Orotic acid PRPP
HGPRT catalyzes what rxns?
Guanine to GMP
Hypoxanthine to IMP
Adenosine deaminase does what?
Adenosine to Inosine (irreversibly deaminates adenosine - substitutes an amino group for a hydroxyl group)
Xanthine oxidase does what?
Hypoxanthine to xanthine, xanthine to uric acid.
Adenosine deaminase deficiency
Leads to excess ATP and dATP, which imbalances nucleotide pool via feedback inhibition of ribonucleotide reductase - DNA synthesis is prevented - lymphocyte count decreases
AR SCID
Purine nucleoside phosphorylase deficiency
Catalyzes the reaction from Inosine to Hypoxanthine. Increased purine nucleosides, decreased uric acid, and impaired T cell function.
Lesch-Nyhan syndrome sx?
HGPRT: Hyperuricemia Gout Pissed off (aggressive, self-mutilating) Retardation DysTonia
Also choreathoid movements
Lesch-Nyhan syndrome treatment?
Allopurinol and Febuxostat (inhibit xanthine oxidase)
Mycophenolate mofetil
Anti-metabolite, anti-proliferative drug that acts as an inhibitor of inosine monophosphate dehydrogenase and is used to treat Wegener’s… somehow
DNA polymerase delta
Major eukaryotic replication polymerase
beta - repair
alpha and epsilon - also involved in replication
gamma - mitochondrial DNA
DNA polymerase beta
beta - repair
delta - major eukaryotic replication polymerase
alpha and epsilon - also involved in replication
gamma - mitochondrial DNA
DNA polymerase III
Prokaryotic only. Proofreads with 3’ to 5’ exonuclease.
III only eats what’s behind it
I is aggressive - chomps as it goes forward, like Pacman
DNA polymerase I
Prokaryotic only. Proofreads with 5’ to 3’ exonuclease. THis is used to degrade RNA primer.
III only eats what’s behind it
I is aggressive - chomps as it goes forward, like Pacman
Transition mutation
purine to purine or pyrimidine to pyrimidine
Transversion mutation
purine to pyrimidine or vice versa
Wobble rules
Third base pair contributes to wobble.
U-G is a valid pair
Inosine can pair with U, C, A
AA with strongly nonpolar side chains have codons with ___s in 2nd position.
Pyrimadines
Polar side chains –> purines
Remember - polar bears are pure.
Xeroderma pigmentosum type of DNA repair problem?
Nucleotide excision repair
Think derma –> skin –> UV exposure
HNPCC repair problem?
Mismatch repair
Ataxia telangiectasia repair problem?
Nonhomologous end joining
Nucleotide excision repair
Repair of pyrimidine dimers or bulky helix-distorted lesions usually from UV light exposure.
A short section is excised using endonucleases and then DNA polymerase and ligase fills and reseals the gap.
Xeroderma pigmentosum
Base excision repair
Altered base - repairs spontaneous / toxic deamination (C –> U, A –> hypoxanthine)
GEL PLease!
Glycosylase (base-specific) recognizes altered base and creates an apyrimidinic, apurinic site
Endonuclease removes nucleotide and cleaves 5’ end
Lyase cleaves 3’ end
Pol beta fills gap
Lyase seals it.
Mismatch repair
Defect in newly synthesized strand.
M2ESS PLease MutS detects mismatch MutL identifies parent strand Exonuclease 1 is activated SSBPs stabilize the construct Pol delta synthesizes new DNA Ligase seals the nick
HNPCC
NHEJ
Brings together 2 ends of DNA fragments to repair double strand breaks; no requirement for homology
Ataxia telangiectasia
DNA denaturation
Hyperchromic effect - increase in UV absorption and A260
Decrease viscosity
Where do capping, splicing, and polyadenylation of 3’ end of RNA occur?
All in the nucleus
hnRNA versus mRNA?
hnRNA - heterogeneous nuclear RNA - not spliced or capped or polyadenylated
Cytoplasmic P-bodies?
These are responsible for mRNA quality control - they contain exonucleases, decapping enzymes, and microRNAs.
Polyadenylation signal
AAUAAA
anti-smith antibodies
Antibodies to spliceosomal snRNPs - highly specific for SLE
anti-U1 RNP antibodies
highly associated with mixed connective tissue disease
Exons
Contain the actual genetic material coding for proton
Introns
Intervening noncoding segments of DNA
Which end is the CCA at in tRNA?
What does it do?
3’ end
Accepts the amino acid
T-arm
Think Tribe
Thiamine, pseudouracil, cytosine
t-RNA ribosome binding
D-arm
Think D-syn
Contains dihydrouracil residues
Necessary for tRNA recognition by the correct amino-acyl tRNA synthetase
Which stages require ATP and which require GTP?
ATP - tRNA activation and charging
GTP - tRNA gripping and going places
Sites on the 60S subunit
A - incoming aminoacyl tRNA
P - accomodates growing peptide
E - holds empty tRNA as it exits
Release factor
Recognizes the stop codon, causes completed polypeptide to be released from the ribosome
Zymogen
Inactive enzyme precursor
CDKs
Constitutive and inactive
Cyclins
Regulatory proteins that control cell cycle events - activate CDKs
Breast cancer, brain tumors, acute leukemia, soft tissue sarcomas, bone sarcomas, and adrenal cortical carcinoma
Li-Fraumeni syndrome
p53 mutation, AD. rare
Nissl bodies
RER in neurons that synthesize peptide neurotransmitters for secretion
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Site of steroid synthesis and detoxification of drugs and poisons
Liver hepatocytes and steroid-hormone producing cells in the adrenal cortex and gonads are rich in SER.
Golgi modifications
N-oligosaccharide on asparagine
O-oligosaccharide on serine and threonine
Mannose-6-phosphate addition to proteins for lysosomal trafficking.
Endosomes
Sorting centers for material from outside the cell or from the Golgi, sending it to lysosomes for destruction or back to the membrane / Golgi for further use.
Coarse facial features, clouded corneas, restricted joint movement, and high plasma levels of lysosomal enzymes - fatal in childhood
I cell disease
Inherited lysosomal storage disorder
Defect in phosphotransferase - Golgi fails to phosphorylate mannose residues (mannose 6 phosphate) on glycoproteins so proteins are screted extracellularly rather than delivered to lysosomes
Think clouds and corn on the golf course - restricted movement because you can’t see - Eyes - I cell disease
I cell disease
Coarse facial features, clouded corneas, restricted joint movement, and high plasma levels of lysosomal enzymes - fatal in childhood
Inherited lysosomal storage disorder
Defect in phosphotransferase - Golgi fails to phosphorylate mannose residues (mannose 6 phosphate) on glycoproteins so proteins are screted extracellularly rather than delivered to lysosomes
Think clouds and corn on the golf course - restricted movement because you can’t see - Eyes - I cell disease
Phosphotransferase
I cell disease
Signal recognition particle
Abundant cytosolic ribonucleoprotein that trafficks proteins from the ribosome to the RER. Absent or dysfunctional SRP causes proteins to accumulate in the cytosol.
COPI
Golgi –> Golgi (retrograde)
Golgi –> ER
COPII is anterograde
Gotta go backwards to fix your past before you can go forward! said the Cop
COP II
Golgi -> Golgi (anterograde)
ER -> Golgi
Gotta go backwards to fix your past before you can go forward! said the Cop
Clathrin
Golgi -> lysosomes
Plasma membrane -> endosomes (receptor mediated endocytosis)
Peroxisome
Catabolizes very long chain fatty acids, branched chain fatty acids, and amino acids
Proteasome
Degrades damaged or ubiquitin tagged protein
Peroxisome vs proteasome?
Peroxisome is fatty acids and amino acids
Proteasome is protein
Dynein versus kinesin?
Dynein is Minus end directed microtubule transport - goes TOWARD the cell center
Drugs that act on microtubules?
Pack My Bendy Greasy Collar of Vines Paclitaxel Mebendazole Griseofulvin Colchicine Vincristine/Vinblastine
Axonemal dynein
ATPase ta links peripheral 9 doublets in cilia and causes bending of cilium by differential sliding of doublets.
Infertility, Increased risk of ectopic pregnancy, bronchiectasis, recurrent sinusitis, situs inversus
Kartagener syndrome - primary ciliary dyskinesia
Actin and myosin versus microtubules versus intermediate filaments
Actin / myosin - Muscle contraction
Microtubule - Movement
Intermediate filament - Structure
Intermediate filament stain - vimentin
Stains Connective tissue
Vines connect
Intermediate filament stain - Desmin
Stains muscle
Desmond is muscular
Cytokeratin stain
Epithelial cell
GFAP stain
NeuroGlia
Neurofilament stain
Neurons
Ouabain
Inhibits by binding to K+ site on sodium potassium pump
Cardiac glycosides
Directly inhibit Na+/K+-ATPase which leads to indirect inhibition of Na+/Ca2+ exchange and increases Ca2+ and cardiac contractility
Collagen types
Be so totally cool, read books
Type I - bone, skin, tendon (dentin, fascia, cornea, late wound repair)
Type II - Cartilage (including hyaline), vitreous body, nucleus pulposis (CaVerN)
Type III - Reticulin - skin, blood vessels, uterus, fetal tissue, granulation tissue (Grub fuss)?
Type IV - Basement membrane, basal lamina, lens
I - bone
II - cartwolage
III - threeD (vascular Ehlers-Danlos)
IV - under the floor
Glomerulonephritis, ESRD, hearing loss, may be eye problems
Basket-weave appearance on EM of the glomeruli.
Alport syndrome. Caused by Type IV collagen mutation.
Which type of collagen is targeted by antibodies in Goodpasture?
GBM
Type II collagen
Cartilage, Vitreous body, Nucleus pulposis
Type IV collagen
Basement membrane
Basal lamina
Lens
Type I collagen
Bone, Skin, Tendon, Dentin, fascia, cornea, late wound repair
Type III
Reticulin - skin, blood vessels, uterus, fetal tissue, granulation tissue
Steps of collagen synthesis
- Synthesis - translation of preprocollagen (Gly-X-Y, usu proline or lysine)
- Hydroxylation of proline and lysine residues - requires VITAMIN C
- Glycosylation of pro-alpha-chain hydroxylysine residues and formation of procollagen thru disulfide bonds (triple helix) – OSTEOGENESIS IMPERFECTA
- Exocytosis into cellular space
- Cleavage of terminal disulfide-rich regions -> becomes insoluble tropocollagen
- Covaent lysine-hydroxylase cross linking by lysyl oxidase occurs to make collagen fibrils. EHLERS DANLOS OR MENKES DISEASE
Multiple fractures with minimal trauma; may occur during the birth process. Hearing loss. Dental imperfections.
Also blue sclera
Dental imperfections due to lack of dentin
Osteogenesis imperfecta, due to defect in triple helix formation in the glycosylation step of collagen I synthesis.
Most common form is Autosomal Dominant.
Hyperextensible skin, tendency to bleed / easy bruising, hypermobile joints, joint dislocation, berry and aortic aneurysms, organ rupture.
Ehlers-Danlos syndrome
Classical type - joint and skin symptoms - Type V collagen mutation
Vascular type - Deficient Type III collagen
What causes Ehlers-Danlos syndrome?
6+ types but listed as defective crosslinking (final step in collagen pathway) in the book.
Brittle, kinky hair, growth retardation, hypotonia
Menkes Disease
Connective tissue disease caused by impaired copper absorption and transport - leads to decreased activity of lysyl oxidase (since copper is the necessary cofactor).
Amino acids in collagen?
Glycin, proline and lysine (the latter 2 hydroxylated)
Amino acids in elastin?
Proline and glycine, nonhydroxylated
Fibrillin
Glycoprotein forming sheath around elastin, mutated in Marfan syndrome
Indirect ELISA
Use a test antigen to see if a specific antibody is present in the patient’s blood - a secondary antibody coupled to a color generating enzyme is added to detect the first antibody
Direct ELISA
Use a test antibody to see if a specific antibody is present in patient’s blood - secondary antibody coupled to a color-generating enzyme is added to detect antigen.
What can you use to perform karyotyping?
Blood, bone marrow, amniotic fluid, or placental tissue
Variable expressivity versus incomplete penetrance
Incomplete penetrance is the all or none one
Pleiotropy
One gene contributes to multiple phenotypic effects
Linkage disequilibrium
Tendency for certain alleles at 2 linked loci to occur together more often than expected by chance
Locus heterogeneity
Mutations at different loci can produce a similar phenotype
Albinism
Allelic heterogeneity
Different mutations in the same locus produce the same phenotype
Polycystic fibrous displasia, unilateral cafe au lait spots, autonomous endocrine hormone excess with precocious puberty
McCune-Albright syndrome - An example of a mosaic disorder
Mutation of the GNAS1 gene involved in G protein signalling which prevents cAMP downregulation.
Uniparental disomy
Offspring receives 2 copies of a chromosome from 1 parent and none from another
Heterodisomy
Indicates a meiosis 1 error - heterozygous
Isodisomy
Indicates a meiosis II error - homozygous - or postzygotic chromosomal duplication of one of a pair and loss of the other
Frequency of X linked recessive disease in males vs females
q vs q^2
Hyperphagia, hypogonadism, hypotonia, obesity, intellectual disability
Prader-Willi syndrome
Inappropriate laughter, seizures, ataxia, severe intellectual disability
Angelman sydndrome, paternally imprinted
Hypophosphatemic rickets
Inherited X linked dominant disorder resulting in increased phosphate wasting at the proximal tubule - presents like Rickets.
Myopathy, latic acidosis, and CNS disease.
Muscle biopsy shows ragged red fibers
Mitochondrial myopathy - a secondary failure in oxidative phosphorylation
Telangiectasia, recurrent epistaxis, skin discolorations, AVMs, GI bleeding, hematuria
Osler-Weber-Rendu syndrome / Hereditory Hemorrhagic telangiectasia
Associated with TGF-beta
As we run (osler weber rendu), we tug a betafish (TGFbeta) which bleeds everywhere
Pectus excavatum
Chest having a sunken in appearance
Which way do the lenses subluxate in marfans?
Upward and temporally
Chromosome associated with FAP?
APC gene, chromosome 5, 5 letters in polyp
Chromosome associated with ADPKD?
16 letters in polycystic kidney
85% cases due to PKD1 mutation
remainder due to PKD2 (chromosome 4)
Most common gene defect associated with CF?
CFTR defect on chromosome 7 - commonly a deletion of Phe508
Fennel gives you cysts or is made of fiber
What electrolyte imbalances do you see with CF?
Hypokalemia and contraction alkalosis because H2O / Na+ losses lead to concomitant renal K+ and H+ wasting
Meconium ileus
Bowel obstruction, occurs when the meconium of the newborn is thicker and stickier than normal meconium
Treatment for CF
N-acetylcysteine to loosen mucus plugs (cleaves disulfide bonds within mucus glycoproteins) Dornase alpha (DNAse) to clear leukocytic debris
X-linked disorders
Brutish Dutch Hunters Give Fat Bloody Leeches to the Wise Blind Oracle
Bruton agammaglobulinemia Duchenne Hunter Syndrome G6PD Fabry Hemophelia Lesch-Nyhan Wiskott-Aldrich Ocular albinism Ornithine transcarbamylase deficiency
Diagnosis of Duchenne
Loss of dystrophin – myonecrosis
Increase CPK and aldolase
Western blot, muscle biopsy to confirm
Myotonia, muscle wasting, frontal balding, cataracts, testicular atrophy, arrhythmia
Myotonic Type I
Defect in myotonin protein kinase (DMPK gene) - specifically CTG trinucleotide repeat expansion
Think bald guy who won’t let go (myotonia) of his love (arrhythmia/heartache) even tho he has cataracts, testicular atrophy…
Trinucleotide repeat expansion diseases
Try hunting for my fried eggs
X-girlfriend’s first aid helped ace my test
Fragile X - CGG
Friedrich - GAA
Huntington - CAG
Myotonic dystrophy - CTG
Intellectual disability, elfin facies, hypercalcemia, well-developed verbal skills, extreme friendliness with strangers, cardiovascular problems
Williams syndrome - congenital microdeletion of long arm of chromosome 7
Think Robin Williams; he was lucky (7) to have elfin facies, strong verbal skills, extreme friendliness, also had heart surgery so cards problem
He was hyper in california (hypercalcemia)
What type of heart defect is associated with Downs?
Ostium primum type ASD
Small white or grayish brown spots on the periphery of the iris due to connective tisue aggregation
Brushfield spots - Down syndrome
First semester ultrasound for Downs
increased nuchal translucency and hypoplastic nasal bone
Serum PAPP-A down
Free beta HCG is up
Second trimester quad for Downs
down up down up
alpha feto, beta hcg, estriol, inhibin a
Severe intellectual disability with rocker-bottom feet, micrognathia, low-set ears, clenched hands, prominent occiput, congenital heart disease; death in 1 year
Edwards syndrome - trisomy 18
Findings for Edward syndrome
PAPP A and free beta hCG down in first trimester
Quad is all don
Severe intellectual disability, rocker bottom feet, microopthalmia, microcephaly, cleft lip and palate, holoprosencephaly, polydactyly, CHD, death in 1 year
13
first trimester creen - decreased beta hcg, PAPP-A, and increased nuchal translucency
Robertsonian translocation
Nonreciprocal chromosomal translocation that commonly involves 13, 14, 15, 21, 22 - long arms fuse with long arms
Cri du Chat
chromosome 5 microdiletion
Microcephaly Moderate to severe disability HIgh pitched crying / mewing epicanthal folds Cardiac abnormality - VSD
Cats venture (ventricles) toward the crying baby and give him a high 5.
Is toxicity more common for fat or water soluble vitamins?
Fat soluble
Which water soluble vitamins don’t wash out easily?
B12 and folate (stored in liver)
Night blindness, dry, scaly skin, alopecia, corneal degeneration, immune suppression
Vitamin A deficiency
Think blind, scaly, hairless, sick - sounds like Lord Voldemort’s soul
Arthralgias, skin changes / scaly, alopecia, cerebral edema, osteoporosis, hepatic abnormalities
Also pseudotumor cerebri, teratogenic
Vitamin A excess symptoms.
What vitamin is used to treat measles?
Vitamin A
What vitamin is used to treat AML, subtype M3?
A
What is thiamine a cofactor for?
- Pyruvate dehyrogenase
- alpha ketoglutarate dehydrogenase
- transketolase
- branched chain ketoacid dehydrogenase
Confusion, opthalmoplegia, ataxia
Wernicke-Korsakoff - also confabulation, personality change, memory loss. Damage to medial dorsal nucleus of thalamus and mammilary bodies
Polyneuritis and symmetrical muscle wasting associated with thiamine
Dry beri beri
HIgh output cardiac failure (dilated) and edema associated with thiamine deficiency
Wet beri beri
How do you diagnose thiamine deficiency?
Increase in RBC transketolase activity following vitamin B1 administration
Cheilosis, corneal vascularization, angular cheilitis, glossitis, scaly dermatitis
Vitamin B2 deficiency
What vitamins does niacin need to be synthesized?
B2, B6
Diarrhea, dementia, dermatitis
Niacin deficiency, pellagra
Casal necklace or hyperpigmentation of sun-exposed limbs
Niacin deficiency, pellagra
Hartnup disease
Decreased tryptophan absorption
Carcinoid syndrome
Vasoactive tumor substances enter systemic circulation - flushing, diarrhea, serotonin-induced fibrosis of valvular epithelium
Dermatitis, enteritis, alopecia, adrenal insufficiency
B5 - pantothenate deficiency
B5
Essential component of coenzyme A and fatty acid synthase
B6
Converted to pyridoxal phosphate: used in GladiaTr Glycogen phosphorylase Decarboxylation rxns Transamination rxns (AST, ALT)
Synthesis of neurotransmitters, cystathionine, heme, niacine, histamine, etc
Convulsions, hyperirritability, peripheral neuropathy, sideroblastic anemia
B6 deficiency
B7
Cofactor for carboxylation enzymes :
- Pyruvate carboxylase
- Acetyl-CoA carboxylase
- Propionyl-CoA carboxylase
Dermatitis, alopecia, enteritis after eating raw egg whites
B7 deficiency
Folic acid
Coenzyme for 1-carbon transfer/methylation reactions
No neurologic symptoms
Drugs that can cause folate deficiency
Prim Fools Trim Pyromaniac phoenixes with no Defense Method
Primidone Folate Trimethoprim Pyrimethamine Phenytoin Diphenhydantoin / anticonvulsants Methotrexate
Diphyllobothrium latum
Can cause b12 deficiency
Subacute combined degeneration
Degeneration of the dorsal columns, lateral corticospinal tracts, and spinocerebellar tracts due to abnormal myelin
association with B12 deficiency
How could you distinguish B12 from folate deficiency?
Methymalonic acid increases with B12 but not with THF deficiency
Homocystine increases with both
Functions of Vitamin C?
- Facilitates iron absorption
- necessary for dopamine beta hydroxylase (dopamine to NE)
- hydroxylation of proline and lysine in collagen synthesis
Swollen gums, bruising, hemarthrosis, anemia, poor wound healing, perifollicular and subperiosteal hemorrhages, corkscrew hair
Vitamin C deficiency, scurvey
Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, fatigue, calcium oxalate nephrolithiasis, increased risk of iron toxicity in certain ppl
Vitamin C excess
D2
Ergocalciferol - ingested from plants
D3
Cholecalciferol consumed in milk and sun-exposed skin
25-OH D3
Storage form
1,25-OH2 D3
Calcitriol, active form
Bone pain and deformity, muscle weakness, hypocalcemic tetany
Rickets, vitamin D deficiency
What vitamin should you give a breastfed infant?
D
Hypercalcemia, hypercalciuria, loss of appetite, stupor
Vitamin D excess
When do you see vitamin D excess?
Sarcoidosis - increased activation of vit D by epithelioid macrophages
Hemolytic anemia, acanthocytosis, muscle weakness, posterior column and spinocerebellar tract demyelination
Vitamin E / tocopherol deficiency
Tocopherol
Vitamin E
What does vitamin E do?
Antoxident - protects erythrocytes and membranes from free radical damage.
What vitamin should you inject at birth?
Vitamin K
Neonatal hemorrhage with increased PT and PTT but normal bleeding time.
Vitamin K deficiency.
What does Vitamin K do?
Cofactor for gamma carboxylation of glutamic acid residues on various proteins
Delayed wound healing, hypogonadism, decreased adult hair (axillary, facial, pubic), dysgeusia, anosmia, acrodermatitis enteropathica, alcoholic cirrhosis
Zinc deficiency
Kwashiorkor
Malnutrition
Edema
Anemia
Fatty Liver
Protein deficiency
Marasmus
Total calorie malnutrition resulting in tissue and muscle wasting, loss of subcutaneous fat, and variable edema.
Fomepizole
Inhibits alcohol dehydrogenase
Disulfiram
inhibits acetaldehyde dehydrogenase
Phosphorylase
Adds inorganic phosphate onto substrate without using ATP
Dehydrogenase
Catalyzes REDOX reactions
What takes place in both mitochondria and cytoplasm?
Heme synthesis, urea cycle, gluconeogenesis
HUGS take 2
Rate determining enzyme of glycolysis
PFK-1
AMP+, F26bisphospate+
ATP-, Citrate -
Frump Cat at JFK
Gluconeogenesis rate determining enzyme
Fructose 1,6 bisphosphatase
Citrate +
AMP-, fructose 2,6 bisphosphate -
Sit the frump
TCA cycle rate determining enzyme
Isocitrate dehydrogenase
ADP+
ATP-, NADH-
Add ice to Nat
Glycogenesis rate determining enzyme
Glycogen synthase
Glucose 6 phosphate+, insuline +, cortisol +
Epinephrine -, glucagon-
Glue in court | glues epic gentleman
Glycogenolysis
Glycogen phosphorylase
Epinephrine+, glucagon+, AMP+
Glucose-6-phosphate-, insulin-, ATP-
Epic glue in the ampitheater glues insurers atrociously
HMP shunt
Glucose 6 phosphate dehydrogenase - G6PD
NADP+
NADPH-
HMph, nope, nope
De novo pyrimidine synthesis
Carbamoyl phosphate synthetase II
De novo purine synthesis
Glutamine phosphoribosylpyrophosphate (PRPP) amidotransferase AMP-, IMP-, GMP-
Urea cycle
Carbamoyl phosphate synthetase I
N acetylglutamate+
Fatty acid synthesis
Acetyl-Coa carboxylase (ACC) - turns acetyl coa into malonyl coa
Insulin+, citrate+
Glucagon-, palmitoyl coa-
Inside the fat citrus there was a newly synthesized glue palace
Fatty acid oxidation
Carnitine acyltransferase I
Malonyl coa-
Mal gets a fat new car
Ketogenesis
HMG-coa synthase
Cholesterol synthesis
HMG coA reductase
Insulin+, thyroxine+
Glucagon-, cholesterol-
In thy cold glum home we burned coal.