15.2.2 Schizophrenia 3

Question 1

The eventual results are mild abnormalities in brain ____ and major disorders of ____.

Answer 1

anatomy : behaviour

Question 2

The risk of schizophrenia is elevated among people who had problems that could have affected their ____ ____, including poor nutrition of mother during pregnancy, premature birth, low birth weight, and complications during delivery.

Answer 2

brain development

Question 3

The risk is also elevated if the mother was exposed to ____ ____, such as the sudden death of a close relative, early in her pregnancy.

Answer 3

extreme stress

Question 4

Schizophrenia has also been linked to ____ ____ in early childhood.

Answer 4

head injuries

Question 5

Another suggestion of prenatal influences comes from the __________ ____: the tendency for people born in winter to have a slightly greater probability of developing schizophrenia than people born at other times of the year.

Answer 5

season-of-birth effect

Question 6

Another influence is ____ ____. Influenza and other viral epidemics are most common in the autumn. Therefore, many pregnant woman become infected in the autumn with a virus that impairs a crucial stage of brain development in a baby who will be born in the winter.

Answer 6

viral infection

Question 7

Rates of schizophrenia are also increased among offspring of mothers who had ____ (German measles), ____, and other infections during pregnancy.

Answer 7

rubella, herpes

Question 8

Certain childhood ____ may also relate to schizophrenia.

Answer 8

infections

Question 9

In accord with the neurodevelopmental hypothesis, some people with schizophrenia show mild abnormalities of ____ ____ that vary from one individual to another.

Answer 9

brain anatomy

Question 10

The areas with consistent signs of abnormality include some that mature slowly, such as the ____ ____ ____.

Answer 10

dorsolateral prefrontal cortex

Question 11

The abnormalities include weaker than average connections from the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex to other brain areas, and less than normal activity in this area during tasks requiring ____ and ____.

Answer 11

attention and memory

Question 12

As you might predict, people with schizophrenia perform poorly at tasks that depend on the ____ ____.

Answer 12

prefrontal cortex

Question 13

At a microscopic level, the most reliable finding is that ____ ____ of those with schizophrenia are smaller than normal, especially in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex.

Answer 13

cell bodies

Question 14

Before antipsychotic drugs became available in the mid-1950s, most people with schizophrenia were confined to ____ ____ with little hope of recovery.

Answer 14

mental hospitals

Question 15

In the 1950s, psychiatrists discovered that ____ (trade name Thorazine) relieves the positive symptoms of schizophrenia for most, though not all, patients.

Answer 15

chlorpromazine

Question 16

Researchers later discovered other ____, or ____, drugs (drugs that tend to relieve schizophrenia and similar conditions) in two chemical families.

Answer 16

antipsychotic or neuroleptic

Question 17

The chemical families are: the ____, which include chlorpromazine, and the ____, which include haloperidol (trade name Haldol).

Answer 17

phenothiazines : butyrophenones

Question 18

Symptoms of schizophrenia generally ____ after cessation of treatment with theses drugs.

Answer 18

return

Question 19

Each of these drugs blocks ____ synapses.

Answer 19

dopamine

Question 20

Drugs that are the most effective against schizophrenia (and therefore used in the smallest doses) are the most effective at blocking ____ ____.

Answer 20

dopamine receptors

Question 21

That finding inspired the ____ ____ of schizophrenia, which holds that schizophrenia results from excess activity at dopamine synapses in certain brain areas.

Answer 21

dopamine hypothesis

Question 22

Although the concentration of dopamine in the brain is no higher than normal, the turnover is elevated, especially in the ____ ____.

Answer 22

basal ganglia

Question 23

Neurons release dopamine at a faster than average rate and ____ more to replace the molecules that they do not reabsorb.

Answer 23

synthesise

Question 24

Further support for the dopamine hypothesis comes from the fact that large, repeated use of amphetamine, methamphetamine, or cocaine induces ____ ____ ____, categorised by hallucinations and delusions, the positive symptoms of schizophrenia.

Answer 24

substance-induced psychotic disorder

Question 25

Each of these drugs increases or ____ the activity at dopamine synapses.

Answer 25

prolongs

Question 26

According to the ____ ____ of schizophrenia, the problem relates in part to deficient activity at glutamate synapses especially in the prefrontal cortex.

Answer 26

glutamate hypothesis

Question 27

In many brain areas, ____ ____ ____ release, or glutamate stimulates neurons that inhibit dopamine release. Therefore, increased dopamine would produce the same effects is decreased glutamate.

Answer 27

dopamine inhibits glutamate

Question 28

The drugs that block dopamine synapses produce their benefits by acting on neurons in the ____ ____, a set of neurons that project from the midbrain tegmenum to the limbic system.

Answer 28

mesolimbocortical system

Question 29

However, the drugs also block dopamine neurons in the ____ ____ that projects to the basal ganglia.

Answer 29

mesostriatal system

Question 30

The effect of dopamine blocking drugs on the basal ganglia produces ____ ____, characterised by tremors and other involuntary movements that develop gradually and to varying degrees among different patients.

Answer 30

tardive dyskinesia

Question 31

Once tardive dyskinesia emerges, it can ________ someone quits the drug. Consequently, the best strategy is to prevent it from starting.

Answer 31

last long after

Question 32

Certain new drugs called ____ ____, or atypical antipsychotics, alleviate schizophrenia without producing movement problems.

Answer 32

second-generation antipsychotics

Question 33

The most common of these second-generation ____ are clozapine, amisulpride, risperidone, olanzapine, and aripiprazole.

Answer 33

antipsychotics

Question 34

Unfortunately, although these new drugs avoid tardive dyskinesia, they produce other side effects, including ____ ____ and impairment of the ____ ____.

Answer 34

weight gain : immune system