Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

AP BIO > viruses and bacteria > Flashcards

viruses and bacteria Flashcards

You may prefer our related Brainscape-certified flashcards:
AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

how are viruses compared to bacteria in terms of size?

A

tiny

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

what are viruses made of?

A

nucleid acid - DNA/RNA
enclosed in a protein coat called a capsid

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

what so some viruses have?

A

viral envelope that helps them infect their host

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

from where are the viral envelopes derived from? why?

A

from the host cell to help the virus be unnoticed by the immune system

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

what are viral envelopes made of?

A

made up of phospholipids and glycoproteins

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

what do some viruses carry?

A

enzymes in their capsids

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

shapes of viruses?

A

may be rod shaped or more complex in structure

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

complex viruses

A

bacteriophages that infect bacteria

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

where can viruses reproduce?

A

only within a host cell

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

when a person sneezes, when are the released viruses activated?

A

until a host gets the virus into their own body

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

why arent viruses activated until they go into a body?

A

they lack enzymes for metabolism and cannot make their own proteins
*why some scientists classify viruses as nonliving

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

host range

A

each type of virus can only infect a limited range of host cells
*some are so small that it only includes 1 species

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

how are viruses able to identify their hosts?

A

by protein receptors in the surface of the host cells that form a lock and key first with the receptors on the surface of the virus

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

example of a virus with a big host range?

A

rabies - can infect raccoons, skunks, dogs, and humans

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

most viruses can infect eukaryotes that are?

A

tissue specific

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

what do cold viruses infect?

A

only the cells of the respiratory tract

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

what does HIV infect?

A

only helper T cells - type of WBC

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

what happens once a virus is inside of a host?

A

they start taking control of the host?

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

what does a virus do to the host?

A

reprogram it to make copies of the viral RNA/DNA (DNA replication) and viral proteins (protein synthesis)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

what does the host cell provide for the virus?

A

nucleotides, enzymes, ribosomes, RNA, amino acids, ATP, for the making of viral part

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

what is the lytic cycle?

A

a viral cycle during the last stage of infection

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

what happens during the lytic cycle?

A

lytic cycle first destroys the host’s DNA and eventually the host
then viruses are free to go infect other healthy cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

what is a virus that reproduces by the lytic cycle called?

A

virulent virus

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

what does virulent mean?

A

very infectious

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

how long does it take a virulent virus to destruct its host?

A

20-30 minutes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

steps of lytic cycle (5)

A
  1. phage stick to receptor on outer surface of cell
  2. sheath of tail contracts, making a hole through the cell wall and membrane. phage injects DNA
  3. empty capsid is left as ghost. cell’s DNA is destroyed (hydrolyzed)
  4. phage’s DNA is replicated
  5. cell lyses
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

when happens when a cell lyses?

A

100-1000 of viruses bursts free from the host cell

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

how have host cells evolved to protect themselves?

A

some have mutated their surface receptors and are no longer recognized by a particular bacteriophage
some have enzymes that are bale to break down viral DNA/RNA (Eco RI)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

what is the lysogenic cycle?

A

when a virus infects a host cell but doesnt destroy the host and doesnt destroy the hosts’s DNA

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

what happens to the viral DNA in lysogenic cycle?

A

it becomes incorporated into the hosts DNA

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

what is the viral DNA called when it is part of the host’s DNA?

A

provirus - general term
prophage - only for bacteria

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

what does a provirus not do?

A

it does not interfere with the normal functioning of the host cell

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

what happens every time a host cell duplicated in a lysogenic cycle?

A

the viral DNA gets copied as well

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

when does a lysogenic cell get triggered to switch to the lytic cycle?

A

can go on for years until triggered by physical/emotional stress

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

do viruses go undetected in lysogenic cycles?

A

most of the time - some can alter the host’s phenotype
ex. scarlet fever causes red rashed on skin since the host cell makes toxins (proteins) and the body reacts to it

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

most viruses have what nucleic acid?

A

RNA as their genetic material

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

what type of virus causes AIDS?

A

retro viruses - viruses that have RNA ns use an enzyme within the virus itself called reverse transcriptase to make DNA

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

what happens when DNA is created by reverse transcriptase?

A

DNA is integrated into the host’s DNA as a provirus which will be replicated over and over in a lysogenic cycle

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

why are HIV infected individuals appear unaffected for so long?

A

lysogenic cycle
some HIV viruses can bud off from the host cell and go infect other helper T cells an d then destroy the helper T cells when it switches to a lytic cycle

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

what happens when the HIV infected cell lyses?

A

helper T cells are destroyed by the HIV virus and there is a total loss of immunity and now has AIDS

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

why is HIV a difficult antigen for the body to destroy?

A

it keeps mutating and the immune system cannot keep up with it

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

why are all mutations of RNA viruses?

A

they do not have the proofreading steps of DNA replication

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

what is the common drug to control HIV?

A

AZT - interferes with the action of reverse transcriptase

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
44
Q

what are vaccines?

A

dead/weakened forms of pathogens

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
45
Q

what are pathogens?

A

viruses or bacteria

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
46
Q

what do vaccines do?

A

since the cannot cause the disease because they are weakened, they stimulate the immune system to mount a defense in the event of a “live” attack.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
47
Q

who made the first vaccine?

A

Dr Edward Jenner

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
48
Q

what did Jenner notice?

A

milkmaids who contracted cowpox were resistant to smallpox

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
49
Q

cowpox

A

a mild disease that usually infects cows

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
50
Q

smallpox

A

a disease that often resulted in death

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
51
Q

what did Jenner do?

A

he scratched James with a needle containing fluid from the sore of a milkmaid who had cowpox

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
52
Q

what happened to James?

A

when he was later exposed to smallpox, he didnt get sick

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
53
Q

why didnt James get sick?

A

cowpox and smallpox viruses are so similar that the immune system cannot distinguish them

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
54
Q

What can vaccines be used for?

A

a viral or bacterial infection

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
55
Q

what can antibiotics not be used on?

A

viral infections

56
Q

when are vaccines usually given?

A

before an infection

57
Q

when are antibiotics used?

A

after one gets a bacterial infection

58
Q

why cant antibiotics be used for viral infections?

A

antibiotics kill bacteria by inhibiting enzymes, but viruses lack enzymes
exception - AZT is used to stop the action of reverse transcriptase in HIV

59
Q

what does penicillin do?

A

interfere with the enzymes that build cell wall.
viruses dont have cell walls while bacteria do

60
Q

who found penicllin?

A

alexander fleming

61
Q

how frequent do RNA viruses mutate?

A

often
* flu shot for every year for RNA influenza virus

62
Q

what happens to viral diseases are viruses increase their host range?

A

new ones come about
*Hanta- spread from deer mice to humans who inhaled dust containing traces of urine and feces from mice

63
Q

what increases viral diseases?

A

increased travel
sexual promiscuity
intravenous drug use
isolated plants, animals, tribes discovered

64
Q

how can plant viruses be spread?

A

insects that act as carriers and by farmers who inadvertently transmit the viruses on their gardening tools

65
Q

how are scientists trying to stop the increase in viral diseases in terms of agriculture?

A

breeding viral resistant crops

66
Q

what are prions

A

misfolded protein normally present in brain cells

67
Q

when did prions hit the news?

A

in 90s when they plagued the british beef industry causing madcow disease

68
Q

what happens when a prion gets into a cell containing the normal form of the protein?

A

the prion converts the normal protein to a prion version causing degenerative brain disease

69
Q

what type of cells are bacteria?

A

prokaryote

70
Q

how do bacteria divide?

A

asexually and divide by binary fission every 20 minutes

71
Q

when bacteria divide, how are the resulting cells compared to the parent?

A

identical

72
Q

what does the short generation time creating large number of bacteria arise?

A

new mutations that bring about genetic variety

73
Q

layers of bacteria

A

capsule/slime layer
cell wall
cell membrane

74
Q

what is genetic recombination?

A

combining DNA from two individuals into the genome of a single individual

75
Q

what are the three ways genetic recombination occurs?

A

transformation
transduction
conjugation

76
Q

transformation

A

alteration of a bacterial cell’s genome by the uptake of foreign DNA from the environment

77
Q

example of transformation

A

Griffith’s experiment where R cells took up a piece of DNA from heat killed Smooth cells enabling to get a capsule that transformed them into pathogenic pneumonia

78
Q

how can bacteria be stimulated to pick up DNA?

A

heat shock and calcium ions

79
Q

what is stimulating bacteria to uptake used for?

A

incorporate foreign/naked DNA that code for protein such as insulin for diabetics

80
Q

transduction?

A

bacteriophages carry bacterial genes from one host to another

81
Q

2 types of transduction

A

generalized transduction that involves lytic cycle
specialized transduction which involves lysogenic cycle

82
Q

steps of generalized transduction

A

always starts with bacteriophage that infects bacterial cell
host DNA is hydrolyzed into pieces and phage DNA and proteins are made
phage accidentally picks up bacterial DNA
crossing over occurs when transducing phages infect new host cells
recombinant bacteria at the end

83
Q

steps of specialized transduction

A

bacterial cell has prophage integrated between it’s own DNA
prophage DNA exits incorrectly taking adjoining bacterial DNA with it, switching to lytic
bit of bacterial DNA in viral DNA phage
crossing over
recombinant bacteria

84
Q

conjugation (Horizontal Gene Transfer)

A

bacterial version of sex in which one bacterial cell transfers DNA to another bacterial cell

85
Q

what happens in conjugation?

A

one way process in which the “male” makes a sex pilus and transfers some DNA from plasmid to “female”

86
Q

sex pilus

A

temporary cytoplasmic bridge

87
Q

how does “maleness” come about?

A

presence of special piece of DNA called F plasmid (F= fertility)

88
Q

what does having the F factor enable?

A

enables the bacteria to be the donner of DNA

89
Q

what are plasmids?

A

small pieces of self-replicating DNA in bacteria are separate from the nucleoid

90
Q

if the f factor is in the plasmid, what is it called?

A

F plasmid

91
Q

can the F factor be a part of the nucleoid?

A

yes

92
Q

what does the F plasmid consist of?

A

25 genes, most of which are required to make a sex pilus

93
Q

how to denote whether a bacteria has F plasmid or not?

A

male - F+
female - F-

94
Q

when does a F- become F+?

A

when two cells conjugate

95
Q

step of normal conjugation?

A

DNA replication of F plasmid in F+ is sent to F- through sex pilus
now both cells are F+

96
Q

what happens when an F+ incorporates the F plasmid into its own nucleoid?

A

Hfr cell - high frequency recombination cell

97
Q

conjugation where F plasmid is in nuceloid

A

male Hfr will undergo DNA replication and accidentally transfer part of the DNA that contains a part of F plasmid and some genes of nucleoid to the F- cell
crossing over between homologous regions of the newly transferred genes and bacterial chromosomes of F- cell

98
Q

R plasmids

A

plasmids that carry genes that make them resistant to antibiotics

99
Q

what do R plasmids code for?

A

enzymes that are able to break down antibiotics such as penicillin or a ampicillin

100
Q

due to natural selection, what happens when more bacteria have a R plasmid?

A

increasing number of bacteria become resistant to antibiotics making it difficult to treat bacterial infections

101
Q

superbug

A

MRSA - multiple resistant staphylococcus aureus

102
Q

what is a transposon?

A

transposable piece of DNA that can move from one location to another

103
Q

where do transposons move in bacterial cells?

A

within the nucleoid between the nucleoid and plasmids or from one plasmid to another plasmid``

104
Q

what are transposons also sometimes called? why is this misleading?

A

jumping genes
some transposons “jump” from one location to another, while others make a copy and that copy gets inserted elsewhere

105
Q

who was the first to identify transposons?

A

Barbara McClintok - breeding experiments with Indian Corn

106
Q

what did Barbaba notice?

A

changes in color of corn kernels that could only be explained by “mobile” elements capable of moving from one location to another in the genome

107
Q

who had transposons?

A

both eukaryotes and prokaryotes

108
Q

what are operons?

A

a way to control transcription in bacteria aka turn on/off

109
Q

what is a metabolic pathway?

A

the making or breaking of molecules

110
Q

if Trp accumulates in a cell, how does the cell stop its creation?

A

it shuts down the making of the amino acid by negative feedback inhibition as it is maintaining homeostasis

111
Q

if E coli is deprived of one of the aa Trp from its environment, what does it do?

A

regulate the number of specific enzymes made to create Trp through a metabolic pathway

112
Q

the blocking of this metabolic pathway takes place at the level of stopping where?

A

stopping transcription of mRNA coding for these enzymes in the pathway

113
Q

the 5 genes that are translated into tryptophan are where?

A

grouped together on a chromosome

114
Q

the segment of DNA that codes for Trp is transcribed by?

A

one promoter where RNA polymerase an bind to and begin trascription

115
Q

operator

A

a segment of DNA after the promotor that controls the making of enzymes- switching them on or off

116
Q

what does the operator control?

A

the access of RNA polymerase to the genese

117
Q

operon=

A

promotor + operator + genes they control

118
Q

2 types of operons

A

repressible
inducible

119
Q

repressible operons

A

turned off when a small molecule binds to its regulatory protein

120
Q

inducible operons

A

turned on when a small molecule binds to its regulatory protein

121
Q

what type of operon is trp operon?

A

repressible since it is turned off by an allosterically binding molecule

122
Q

what is located upstream of an operon?

A

regulatory gene that makes a regulatory protein

123
Q

what does the cell do when there is too much of trp?

A

cell activates the repressor which then binds to the operator and the operon is off

124
Q

What type of operon is the lac operon?

A

Inducible as it is turned on when small molecule binds allows Teri calls to its regulatory protein removing it from the operator

125
Q

What does the lac operon do?

A

Make enzymes that hydrolyze lactose

126
Q

What happens when a bacterium is exposed to milk?

A

Signals the bacterium it needs to make enzymes to break it down

127
Q

Repressible operons usually function in what type of pathway?

A

Anabolic - the making of something

128
Q

Inducible operons usually function in what type of pathways?

A

Catabolic - the breaking of something

129
Q

DNA exists in its loose form during interphase called

A

Chromatin

130
Q

What happens to DNA during prophase?

A

Chromatin condenses into replicated chromosome

131
Q

What is eukaryotic DNA combined with?

A

Large amount of proteins called histones

132
Q

How many types of positive charges histone that the negative charged DNA molecule wraps itself around?

A

5

133
Q

Why is DNA negative?

A

Phosphate groups

134
Q

Combination of DNA wound around histone

A

Nucleosome

135
Q

appearance of nucleosome

A

Beads on a string

AP BIO (30 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions