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cell communication Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

how many cells are multicellular organisms made out of?

A

trillions of cells

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2
Q

how do cells coordinate activitues?

A

they “talk” to each other/ communicate

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3
Q

what kingdom in yeast from?

A

fungi

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4
Q

is yeast motile?

A

it is nonmotile

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5
Q

yeast is used to make what?

A

beer, bread, wine

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6
Q

name of yeast cell we study

A

Saccharomyces cerevisiae

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7
Q

what are the two sexes of mating types for yeast cell called?

A

a and alpha cell

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8
Q

how do two haploid yeast cells mate?

A

the a cell secretes a signaling molecule/pheromone (a factor) which binds to receptors on a nearby alpha cell
at the same time, the alpha cell secretes the alpha factor which binds to a receptor on the a cell

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9
Q

what does the attachment of a cell’s factor to another cell’s receptor do?

A

causes the cells to start shmooing

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10
Q

what is shmooing?

A

cells to elongate and grow toward each other

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11
Q

what happens when the two haploid cells meet each other?

A

they form a new diploid a/alpha cell

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12
Q

what is the more typical way for yeast cells to repoduce?

A

asexually by pinching off a parent cell - budding

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13
Q

bacteria can live as free-living cells called?

A

planktonic bacteria

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14
Q

how do bacteria cells communicate?

A

with small molecules that can be detected by other bacterial cells of the same species

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15
Q

what happens when the signaling molecules of bacteria cells gets high?

A

induces quorum sensing

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16
Q

what is quorum sensing?

A

bacteria are indicated that their densities are high enough to coordinate behaviors that can only be done by a given number of bacterial cells working together in synchrony

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17
Q

who discovered quorum sensing?

A

Bonnie Bassler

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18
Q

example of quorum sensing

A

formation of biofilm

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19
Q

what is biofilm ?

A

aggregation of bacterial cells adhered to a surface
slimy feeling on teeth each morning or on leaves in a forest path

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20
Q

what do cells get from the surfaces they are attached to?

A

typically derive nutrients

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21
Q

where was quorum sensing fist seen by Bassler?

A

in a species of bioluminescent bacteria called Vibrio fischeri that are mutualistic symbionts in the light producing organs of squid

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22
Q

how does Vibrio fischeri work?

A

as free-living planktonic cells, their signaling molecules are too low to produce light. however, in high concentrations, this triggers protein synthesis of luciferase that produces the characteristic glow

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23
Q

what does pathogenic mean?

A

disease causing

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24
Q

example of pathogenic bacteria using quorum sensing

A

rely on this to know when their densities are high enough to turn on their genes for virulence

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25
Q

what is virulence?

A

harmful characteristic

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26
Q

what is local signaling?

A

when eukaryotic cells communicate through direct contact
includes plant and animal cell functions and cell-cell recognition when surface molecules interact

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27
Q

local signaling in animal cells?

A

gap junction

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28
Q

local signaling in plant cells?

A

plasmodesmata

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29
Q

example of cell to cell recognition

A

glycoprotein to protein receptor

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30
Q

2 steps involved in Salmonella becoming virulent

A
  1. activate gene
  2. release toxins
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31
Q

what does local signaling also involve regarding communication by travelling short distances?

A

involves messenger molecules being secreted from one cell from traveling short distances toa target cell which then carried out a response

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32
Q

what are local regulators?

A

messenger molecules
growth factor stimulate nearby target cells to grow and divide

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33
Q

what is paracrine signaling?

A

when the secreting cell releases a lot of local regulators, to the point where they affect many target cells in the vicinity

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34
Q

specialized type of local signalinh

A

synaptic signaling - occurs in animal neurons or muscle cells where the messenger molecules are neurotransmitters

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35
Q

synonymous names for messenger molecules

A

ligand, signaling molecules, local regulators

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36
Q

what do plants and animals use for long-distance signaling?

A

chemicals called hormones

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37
Q

long distance signaling in animals

A

endocrine signaling - begins when secreting cells release hormone that travel via the bloodstream to remotely located target cells that then carry out a cellular response
via nervous system with the aid of neurons - longest nerve is sciatic nerve

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38
Q

what determine the ability of a target cell to respond to a signaling molecule?

A

whether it had a protein receptor that can bind with the signaling molecule

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39
Q

what happens once the signaling molecule binds to a receptor?

A

transduction - transduces (changes) the molecule into another form
once changed the target cell can now respond

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40
Q

what three steps does cell communication involve?

A

reception
transduction
response

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41
Q

what is reception?

A

signaling molecule binds to a receptor protein either on the cell’s surface or inside the cell

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42
Q

what is transduction?

A

the signaling molecule changes the receptor protein in some way
signal transduction pathway

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43
Q

what is signal transduction pathway?

A

a pathway of several steps where each relay molecule brings about change to the next molecule
a series of steps linking a stimulus to a specific cellular response

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44
Q

what is response?

A

can be almost any imaginable cellular activity
ex. activating a gene in the nucleus, stem cells undergoing differentiation into specialized cells, or apoptosis

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45
Q

how do signaling molecules relate to radio stations?

A

radio stations broadcasts its signal indiscriminately, but it can only be picked up by radios on the right wavelength

in the same way, signaling molecules might be sent into the bloodstream and encounter many cells along its path, but can only be detected by a specific receptor protein on or in the target cell

signaling molecule behaves as a ligand - general term for a molecule that binds specifically to another molecule, often a larger one

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46
Q

what does the ligand binding cause? (2)

A

1) receptor protein to change its shape, activating the receptor
2) the aggregation of two of more receptors molecules, resulting in further molecule events inside the cell

47
Q

what is a common cell - surface transmembrane receptor?

A

spans across the phospholipid bilayer of the cell membrane
G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR)

48
Q

what type of 2 protein structure makes up GPCR?

A

7 alpha helices

49
Q

GPCR are widespread. what are some roles they play?

A

embryonic Develpoment, vision, taste, and smell
roles in human diseases like cholera, pertussis, and botulism by producing toxins that interfere with this system
60% of all medicines today exert their effects on G protein pathways

50
Q

how does GPCR work?

A
  1. GPCR is switched off. The G protein has GDP (guanosine diphosphate) attached to it and is inactive
  2. GPCR is turned on when a ligand binds to the extracellular side of the receptor. It is then activated and changes shape. then it binds the G protein causing GDP to be converted to GTP (guanosine triphosphate, and energy rich molecule)
  3. The G protein detaches from the GPCR and then binds to an enzyme, changing the enzyme’s shape. the enzyme will trigger the next step, eventually leading to a cellular response. meanwhile, the signaling molecule detaches from the GPCR/it is reversible
  4. the G protein hydrolyzes GTP back into GDP and is inactive once gain as it leaves the enzyme, and the enzyme returns to it og shape. the system in now ready for the nest signaling to bind to GPCR
51
Q

another example of cell-surface receptor

A

receptor tyrosine kinase

52
Q

what is tyrosine?

A

amino acid

53
Q

what is kinase?

A

an enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of phosphate groups - phosphorylation

54
Q

what can be activated if one ligand binds to a RTK?

A

10+ transduction pathways and cellular responses

55
Q

what are abnormal RTKS associated with?

A

many kinds of cancer
patients with breast cancer cells who have excessive levels of a RTK called HER2 have poor prognosis

56
Q

how have researchers increased breast cancer survival rate by more than 1/3?

A

developed a protein that binds to HER2 and inhibits tumor development

57
Q

how does RTK work? (4)

A
  1. before ligand binds to the RTK, the receptors exist as separate units (inactive monomers)
  2. the ligand binds, and the receptor monomers come together to form a dimer
  3. each tyrosine gets phosphorylated by ATP, which activates RTK
  4. now activated, relay proteins inside the cell bind to a specific tyrosine, causing transduction, and leading to a cellular response
58
Q

another example of cell surface receptor

A

ligand-gated ion channels

59
Q

how do ligand-gated ion channels work? (2)

A

act as “gate” when a ligand binds to them in that they open or close
the ligand then allows the flow of specific ions in or out of the cell

60
Q

what system do ligand-gated ion channels play an important role in?

A

nervous system

61
Q

where are intracellular receptors found?

A

found either in the cytosol or nucleus of the target cell

62
Q

intracellular receptors characteristic
ex

A

hydrophibic or small - to get through the plasma membrane and phospholipid’s nonpolar tails
ex. steroid hormones (lipids) or small gas molecules (NO)

63
Q

how does testosterone work with intracellular receptors? (4)

A
  1. testosterone passes through the plasma membrane
  2. testosterone binds to a receptor protein in the cytoplasm, activating it (transduction)
  3. the hormone receptor complex enters the nucleus and binds to a specific gene
  4. proteins synthesis creates proteins to control male sex characteristic (cellular response)
64
Q

how many steps does transduction consist of?

A

involves multiple steps - a single transduction pathway

65
Q

what is the benefit of having multiple steps?

A

the ability to greatly amplify a signal and more opportunities for coordination and regulation of a cellular response

66
Q

how do signal activated receptor activate another molecule?

A

like falling dominoes - one actives another, and yet another and so in until a protein is activated to carry out a response

67
Q

what are “relay” molecules?

A

often proteins and at each step in the pathway, they are transduced into a different shape or form

68
Q

how is the shape change brought about?

A

by phosphorylation

69
Q

what is protein kinase?

A

an enzyme that transfers phosphate groups from ATP to a protein

70
Q

what do you call a transduction pathway that consists of relay molecules that are a bunch of protein kinases?

A

phosphorylation cascade

71
Q

since phosphate groups have negative charges, what types of R groups on the protein kinases would they most likely interact with?

A

positively charged (ionic or polar)

72
Q

protein kinases regulate thousands of proteins in a cell. what can abnormal protein kinases result in?

A

cancer

73
Q

equally important are enzymes that remove phosphate grips from the activated protein kinases making them inactive and available for reuse. what are these called?

A

protein phosphatase - PP

74
Q

process of removing phosphate groups from activated kinase?

A

dephosphorylation

75
Q

are all components in a signal transduction pathway proteins?

A

no - some are secondary messengers

76
Q

examples of secondary messengers

A

some are water-soluble/polar molecules like cAMP or ions (Ca+2) or polyatomic ions (IP3)

77
Q

what is cAMP?

A

cyclic AMP

78
Q

what is IP3?

A

inositol triphosphate

79
Q

what are “first messengers”?

A

signaling molecule that binds to receptors

80
Q

what are “second” messengers?

A

all small nonprotein components of a signal transduction pathway

81
Q

what does cAMP stand for?

A

cyclic adenosine monophosphate

82
Q

how is cAMP made?

A

an enzyme called adenylyl cyclase removes 2 inorganic phosphate groups from ATP and forms a “cyclic” structure

83
Q

what enzyme then converts cAMP back into ATP?

A

phosphodiesterase

84
Q

what happens when the G protein coupled receptor binds a ligand?

A

GPCR chape changes
G protein binds to CPCR

85
Q

what happens when the G protein binds to the GPCR?

A

GDP becomes GTP - now G protein is activated

86
Q

what does the activated G protein do?

A

binds to enzyme adenylyl cyclase change its shape and converting ATP to secondary messenger cAMP

87
Q

what does cAMP do after being formed?

A

activates a protein kinase which would then phosphorylate other proteins

88
Q

how does phosphodiesterase convert cAMP to AMP?

A

hydrolysis

89
Q

what is cholera?

A

a disease where H2O supply is contaminated with human feces containing the cholera bacteria
causes profuse diarrhea to infected persons, and if left untreated its victims soon die from salt and water loss

90
Q

cholera bacteria

A

Vibrio cholera

91
Q

how does V cholera infect cells?

A

bacteria form a biofilm on the small intestine and produce toxin

that toxin is an enzyme that changed G protein involved in salt and water secretion

G protein can no longer hydrolyze GTO back to GDP, so it stays in active form, continually stimulating adenylyl cyclase to make cAMP

this causes large amounts of salts to go into the intestines and via osmosis water soon follows

92
Q

what responses does Ca+2 cause in animal cells?

A

muscle contractions and cell division

93
Q

what responses does Ca+2 cause in plant cells?

A

greening in response to light

94
Q

where does IP3 come from?

A

cleaving a phospholipid

95
Q

what leads to protein synthesis?

A

many signaling pathways lead to turning off or on specific genes in the nucleus

96
Q

what is protein synthesis comprised of?

A

transcription and translation

97
Q

what is transcription?

A

DNA -> mRNA

98
Q

what is translation?

A

mRNA -> protein

99
Q

what is the common name for epinephrine?

A

adrenaline

100
Q

epinephrine allows for what response?

A

the “fight” or “flight” response

101
Q

what polysaccharide is being broken down in this cellular pathway to fuel the response of epinephrine?

A

glycogen is being broken down into a form of glucose (to provide energy in cellular respiration)

102
Q

what steps does a fine-tuned response of epinephrine have? (4)

A

1) amplification - of signal so that 1 signal molecule can influence 10^8 molecules in the end

2) cell specificity - epinephrine breaks down glycogen in a liver/muscle cell but when it binds to a heart cell it causes it to contract/ increase heart rate

3) signaling efficiency - scaffolding proteins group together relay proteins, so the process is sped up

4) termination - needs to inactivate each molecule in the path and make sure it only lasts a short time so that the cell is ready to receive a fresh signal

103
Q

how does a cell undergo apoptosis?

A

uses nucleases to chop up DNA and proteases to break up proteins, along with disassembling all the organelles
cell then shrinks and becomes lobed before being engulfed and digested by scavenger cells

104
Q

what is the name for a change in which a cell becomes lobbed and shrunked?

A

blebbing

105
Q

what signals apoptosis in cells as it is usually inhibited?

A

a death signal molecule activates apoptosis genes to encode caspases

106
Q

apoptosis genes

A

ced-3 and ced-4

107
Q

what does ced stand for?

A

cell death

108
Q

what are caspases?

A

nuclease and protease enzymes

109
Q

in what does apoptosis play a critical role in?

A

embryonic development

110
Q

apoptosis role examples

A

morphogenesis of hands and feet
development of nervous system - babies have twice as many of neural connections than an adult

111
Q

morphogenesis

A

“morpho” - change/look
“genesis” - creation

112
Q

if it weren’t for apoptosis, what type of hands and feet would humans have?

A

webbed

113
Q

what disease are a result of apoptosis?

A

some degenerative diseases
Parkinsons’ - death of neurons that make dopamine to help control muscle movement
cancer - melanoma

114
Q

what are the ABCDE of melanoma?

A

asymmetry
border
color
diameter
evolve

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