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reproduction Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

what is asexual reproduction the creation of?

A

new individuals by the process of mitosis

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2
Q

what does asexual reproduction create?

A

identical offspring rapidly

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3
Q

asexual reproduction is common with?

A

many invertebrates

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4
Q

3 types of asexual reproduction

A

fission
budding
fragmentation

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5
Q

what is fission? examples?

A

division of parent into 2 genetically identical individuals
amoeba, bactera (bindary fission instead of mitosis)

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6
Q

what is budding? examples?

A

new individuals pinch off from an existing one to form a colony
yeast, hydra, corals

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7
Q

what is fragmentation? example?

A

breaking off of the body into smaller pieces that then develop into complete adults through regeneration
sea stars, planaria

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8
Q

advantage of asexual reproduction

A

animals living in isolation can produce offspring without a mate
many offspring are created in a short amount of time

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9
Q

what is sexual reproduction?

A

creation of oddspring when 2 haploid gametes come together to form a diploid zygote

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10
Q

when are gametes made?

A

meiosis

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11
Q

ffemale gamete

A

ovum/oocyte

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12
Q

male gamete

A

sperm/spermatozoan `

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13
Q

what does sexual reproduction increase?

A

genetic variation amongst offspring by inheriting genes from 2 parents

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14
Q

what does the variability in sexual reproduction enhance?

A

Darwinian fitness and survival when environmental factors change

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15
Q

who can reproduce both sexually and asexually?

A

freshwater crustacean Daphnia

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16
Q

under favorable conditions, how do Daphnia reproduce?

A

parthenogenesis/virgin birth

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17
Q

parthenogenesis

A

mother organisms form genetically identical daughters/clones that d nit need to be fertilized

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18
Q

what is the advantage of parthenogenesis?

A

allows numbers to increase rapidly in short growing periods

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19
Q

under unfavorable conditions, how do Daphnia reproduce?

A

give birth to males + sexual females so that mating can occur and some can survive

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20
Q

where is parthenogenesis seen?

A

species with social organization like bees ad ants
some vertebrates lie fish, birds, amphibians, and lizards

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21
Q

how is parthenogenesis in ants?

A

male drones develop by parthenogenesis, while female sterile workers and fertile queen develop from fertilized eggs

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22
Q

most animals’ reproductive cycles are linked to?

A

changing seasons

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23
Q

what does reproductive cycles being linked to season allow?

A

conservation of energy and reproduce hen condiions are favorable

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24
Q

what does reproductive cycles being linked to season allow?

A

conservation of energy and reproduce when conditions are favorable

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25
Q

what are reproductive cycles also controlled by?

A

hormones and environmental cues like temp, rainfall, daylength, and lunar cycles

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26
Q

who is sexual reproduction difficult for?

A

sessile organisms (dont move) and burrowing animals who may never encounter a member of the opposite sex

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27
Q

how is the prob;em of sexual reproduction for sessile animals solved?

A

synchronous hermaphroditism

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28
Q

hermaphroditism

A

having both male and female reproductive systems
-many still must mate with another member of the same species(earthworms)

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29
Q

sequential hermaphroditism

A

when an individual changes its sex/gonads during its lifetime

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30
Q

male to female

A

protoandrous

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31
Q

female to male

A

protogynous

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32
Q

what is sex reversal associated with?

A

age and size

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33
Q

sequential hermaphroditism in clownfish

A

in some clownfish species, oldest and the biggest individual can change from male to female is there are not enough females around

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34
Q

fertilization

A

joining of egg and sperm

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35
Q

external fertilization

A

eggs and sperm meet in the environment
always occurs in water
environmental cues like, temp, day length and pheromones or nonenvironmental cues like courtship behavior, influence gametes release
produce large numbers of zygotes and few survive

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36
Q

internal fertilization

A

sperm are deposited in or near female’s reproductive tracts
produce fewer zygotes with more parental care, hence greater survival

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37
Q

gonads

A

organs that produce gametes
ovaries - female
testicles - male

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38
Q

single opening for both excretion of waste and reproduction

A

cloaca

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39
Q

examples of organism with cloacas

A

non mammalian vertebrate - birds and fish
(most mammals have 2 separate openings)

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40
Q

spermatogenesis

A

production of mature sperm cells

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41
Q

how does structure of sperm fit function?

A

head region contains 1n nucleus that is tipped with enzymes called the acrosome that help the sperm penetrate the egg
behind the egg are many mitochondria that provide ATP for movement of the flagellum

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42
Q

what parts of the sperm enter the ovum?

A

head - DNA (nucleus) and centriole

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43
Q

oogenesis

A

develpoment of ova

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44
Q

ova

A

unfertilized egg cells

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45
Q

how many follicles do women have?

A

~400,000

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46
Q

when do women get all their follicles?

A

formed before birth, but they are not “ready”

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47
Q

follicle

A

1 egg surrounded by layers called follicle cells

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48
Q

what do follicle cells do?

A

protect and nourish developing egg

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49
Q

at birth, how are all the eggs in a woman?

A

diploid and in g1 interphase of meiosis

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50
Q

what happens to the eggs between birth and puberty?

A

all reach prophase i of meiosis and are essentially stuck there for a while

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51
Q

what happens during puberty?

A

a single primary oocyte completes meiosis each month

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52
Q

how does a primary oocyte complete meiosis?

A

FSH hormone stimulates one follicle “the chosen one” to go through meiosis I each month

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53
Q

what happens at the end of meiosis I?

A

the secondary oocyte is formed and is then released from the ovary with ovulation to go wait in the fallopian tubes/oviduct

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54
Q

how is the meiotic division in puberty?

A

unequal- the secondary oocyte gets almost all the cytosol and organelles and the 1st polar body is much smaller

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55
Q

how is meiosis II/second mitotic division induced?

A

when a sperm penetrates the secondary oocyte to produce the haploid ovum/egg

56
Q

what happenes to the 2nd polar body?

A

it separates from the ovum, while the haploid ovum and sperm’s nuclei fuse= fertilization

57
Q

what does the secondary oocyte leave behind when it leaves the ovary during ovulation?

A

leaves behind follicular tissue

58
Q

what does the follicular tissue develop into?

A

corpus luteum in the ovary

59
Q

what does the corpus luteum do?

A

secretes hormones estrogen and progesterone that maintain the uterine lining during pregnancy

60
Q

what happens to the corpus luteum when the secondary oocyte is not fertilized?

A

it degenerates and the woman has her period then a new follicle matures during the next cycle

61
Q

principle hormones of males

A

steroid hormones called androgens

62
Q

important androgen

A

testosterone

63
Q

what does testosterone do?

A

primary sex characteristics that are associated with the reproductive system
secondary sex characteristics that are not directly related to the reproductive system

64
Q

primary sex characteristics

A

sperm production and development of reproductive structures

65
Q

secondary sex characteristics

A

deepening of the voice, hair growth, and more muscle growth

66
Q

how many eggs do females release per cycle?

A

1 or a few eggs

67
Q

2 different types of cycles

A

human and primates - menstrual cycles
estrous cycles - dogs

68
Q

similarity between menstrual and estrous cycles

A

ovulation at the endometrium lining of the uterus thickens and develops a rich blood supply in preparation for an embryo

69
Q

difference between menstrual cycle and estrous cycle

A

m - if ovum is not fertilized, the uterine lining is shed
e - endometrium is reabsorbed by the uterus

70
Q

FSH

A

Follicle Stimulating Hormone

71
Q

LH

A

Luteinizing Hormone

72
Q

how is FSH involved?

A

involved in the development of the growing follicle

73
Q

why isnt LH initially helping the growing follicle?

A

there are no receptors for it on the growing follicle

74
Q

where are FSH and LH secreted from?

A

pituitary glands

75
Q

what do FSH and LSH stimulate?

A

the release of estrogen and progesterone

76
Q

does the follicle get receptors for LH?

A

yes, as it grows larger with the aid of FSH, it eventually develops receptor sites for LH

77
Q

what type of feedback do LH and FSH have?

A

positive - it is actually LH that induces ovulation of secondary oocyte

78
Q

after ovulation, what does LH do?

A

stimulates the remaining follicular tissue left behind when the secondary oocyte was released to form the corpus luteum

79
Q

after the corpus luteum is formed, what doesLH do next?

A

triggers it to secrete estrogen and progesterone

80
Q

what happens to the hormones when corpus luteum disintegrates?

A

estrogen and progesterone levels decrease and induces menstruation

81
Q

what happens to estrogen and progesterone levels when a women is pregnant?

A

levels remain high

82
Q

what is estrogen responsible for?

A

secondary sex characteristics like high water retention, breast development, and calcium metabolism

83
Q

menopause

A

women cease to ovulate/menstruate

84
Q

why do women go through menopause?

A

ovaries lose their responsiveness to the hormones FSH and LH which then causes the decline of estrogen and progesterone

85
Q

why do older women tend to have osteoporosis?

A

estrogen linked to calcium metabolism, so low levels of that causes weak bones
“bone pores”

86
Q

gestation

A

pregnancy
is the condition of carrying one or more embryos

87
Q

conception

A

fertilization of an egg by a sperm

88
Q

when does a zygote start cleavaging?

A

24 hours after fertilization

89
Q

morula

A

division of zygote until a forms a solid ball of cells

90
Q

blastula

A

morula continues to divide, becoming a hollow ball

91
Q

gastrulation

A

cells invaginate to form a gastrula

92
Q

what begins with the formation of a gastrula?

A

differentiation of body structures

93
Q

placenta

A

disk-shaped organ

94
Q

what does the placenta contain?

A

embryonic and maternal blood vessels

95
Q

what does the placenta exchange? via what?

A

materials between the mother and embryo like nutrients, respiratory gases
arteries and veins of the embryo’s umbilical cord

96
Q

what does the placenta dispose?

A

metabolic waste from the embryo

97
Q

organogenesis

A

development of organs

98
Q

when does organogenesis occur?

A

first trimester

99
Q

what is the embryo considered as after the first trimester?

A

fetus because of all the major structures of the adult are present in rudimentary form

100
Q

during the 1st trimester, what does the embryo secrete?

A

hormone human chorionic gonotrophin (HCG)

101
Q

what does HCG do?

A

maintains the secretion of progesterone and estrogen by the corpus luteum and keeps the endometrium lining intact

102
Q

what does a pregnancy test detect in urine?

A

high levels of HCG

103
Q

what happens during the 2nd trimester when HCG levels drops?

A

corpus luteum deteriorates and the placenta secretes its own estrogen and progesterone to maintain the lining

104
Q

when are estrogen levels the highest?

A

near the end of the pregnancy in the thrid trimester

105
Q

what does the high levels of estrogen trigger?

A

the release of oxytocin receptors on the uterus
local regulator prostaglandins are secreted

106
Q

what does oxytocin cause?

A

causes powerful contractions of the smooth muscles of the uterus

107
Q

what does prostaglandin do?

A

enhance contractions and cause pain

108
Q

what happens to mammals after birth?

A

lactation

109
Q

what stimulates milk production in the mammary glands?

A

the pituitary glands produce prolactin that is controlled by the hormone oxytocin

110
Q

what are birth control a combination of?

A

synthetic estrogen and progesterone

111
Q

what feedback are birth control pills?

A

negative feedback by stopping the release of FSH and LH thus preventing ovulation

112
Q

what three stages of cell division follow fertilization?

A

cleavage
gastrulation
organogenesis

113
Q

cleavage

A

zygote divides to from the solid morula then hollow/fluid-filled blastula

114
Q

gastrulation

A

3 germ layers form

115
Q

organogenesis

A

generates rudimentary organs from which adult structures will grow

116
Q

what does the cell cycle during cleavage consist of?

A

s-phase of interphase where DNA gets copied
m-phase where mitosis occurs, cytokinesis

117
Q

what does the embryo do during cleavage?

A

partitions the cytoplasm of the zygote into many smaller calls called blastomeres and does not enlarge

118
Q

deuterostomes

A

second mouth
echinoderms (sea stars) and chordates (humans)

119
Q

cleavage in deuterostomes

A

radial - upper four cleavage are aligned directly over the lower four blastomeres

120
Q

protosomes

A

first mouth
mollusks (shells)
annelids (segmented worms)
arthropods (insects)

121
Q

cleavage in protostomes

A

spiral - blastomere cells of upper tier sit in the grooves between the cells of the lower tier

122
Q

gastrulation

A

morula - blastula - gastrula

123
Q

what is gastrulation?

A

rearrangement of the cells of the blastula

124
Q

invagination

A

cells at one pole of the blastula move inward

125
Q

gastrula

A

hollow single layered blastula

126
Q

where the cells invaginate

A

blastopore

127
Q

3 layers in the germ layer

A

ectoderm - outer layer of the gastrula
endoderm - lines the embryonic digestive tract
mesoderm - partially fills the space between the endo and ectoderms

128
Q

key body parts that form from ectoderm

A

epidermis of skin
nervous system

129
Q

key body parts that form from endoderm

A

lining of digestive tract
lining of respiratory tract
lining of urethra
reproductive system

130
Q

key body parts that form from mesoderm

A

skeletal system
muscular system
dermis of skin

131
Q

three kinds of morphogenesis changes occurring with organogenesis

A

folds
splits
condensation/ clustering

132
Q

first body part to take shape in chordates?

A

neural tube and notochord

133
Q

what will the neural tube and notochord become?

A

spinal cord and backbone/vertebrate respectively

134
Q

when does the notochord form?

A

when the mesoderm condenses

135
Q

if a mother does not get enough folic acid in her diet how will this affect the baby?

A

neural tube defects - spina bifida

AP BIO (30 decks)

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