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AP BIO > DNA Technology and Development > Flashcards

DNA Technology and Development Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Recombinant DNA

A

DNA from 2 different sources that is combined

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2
Q

Genetic Engineering

A

direct manipulation of genes for practical purposes

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3
Q

In vitro

A

in glass
in a test tube or flask

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4
Q

biotechnology

A

manipulation of organisms to perform practical tasks or provide useful products

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5
Q

gene cloning

A

making well-defined gene sized pieces of DNA in multiple identical copies

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6
Q

restriction enzymes

A

enzymes that occur naturally in bacteria that protect the bacteria against intruding DNA from other organisms

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7
Q

how do restriction enzymes work?

A

work by cutting foreign DNA at specific points along the DNA strand

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8
Q

what does a specific restriction enzyme recognize?

A

a restriction site

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9
Q

what is a restriction site?

A

specific short nucleotide sequences

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10
Q

what does it mean when most restriction sites are palindrome?

A

they have the same order of nucleotides read either forward or backward

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11
Q

how long are restriction sites?

A

4-8 nucleotides

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12
Q

what does the restriction enzyme cut through?

A

covalent phosphodiester bonds and H bonds of both strands

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13
Q

sticky ends

A

the fragments of DNA with single stranded DNA made from cuts

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14
Q

since one type of restriction enzyme always cuts at the same restriction site, how are the restriction fragments?

A

they are always the same

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15
Q

can a restriction enzyme make many cuts?

A

as long as the target sequence is there, the enzyme will cut all of them

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16
Q

how to use bacteria to clone genes?

A

Isolation of plasmid DNA and DNA containing gene of interest
gene inserted into plasmid =recombinant DNA (vector)
plasmid put into a diff bacterial cell
cells clones with gene of interest
identification of desired clone
various applications - copies of gene or protein

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17
Q

What happens when the sticky ends are made?

A

form H bonds with their complementary base pairs, bringing about recombinant DNA molecule if it is from another source

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18
Q

what seals the strands together?

A

DNA ligase, forming covalent phosphodiester bonds

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19
Q

what are the problems that arise with getting a prokaryote to function with eukaryotic DNA in it?

A

prokaryotes lack introns, while eukaryotes have them

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20
Q

how have scientists avoided the intron problem with prokaryotes and eukaryotes?

A

make artificial eukaryotic genes that lack introns by allowing a cell to undergo transcription and make mRNA, then allowing splicesome to remove introns

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21
Q

what happens after RNA splicing?

A

mRNA is added to a solution of reverse transcriptase which creates a strand of DNA minus the introns

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22
Q

what is the “intron free” DNA called?

A

complementary DNA (cDNA) that can now be inserted into a vector

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23
Q

what do scientists also use to avoid prokaryotes-eukaryotes incompatibility?

A

yeast as they are single-celled fungi that grow as easily as bacteria and have plasmids and are eukaryotes

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24
Q

what are the artificial chromosomes that scientists have made?

A

that are vectors containing an origin of replication, a centromere, 2 telomeres, and most importantly foreign DNA

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25
Q

how at the artificial chromosome vectors compared to plasmid vectors?

A

much longer enabling long pieces of DNA to be cloned`

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26
Q

why is it better to use eukaryotic host cells for expressing a cloned genes?

A

many proteins are altered after translation by the addition of a lipo- or glyco- proteins, using host cells from an animal or plant culture may be necessary

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27
Q

how can eukaryotic cells use electrical impulses to allow DNA to enter?

A

electroporation - use of brief electrical impulses that create temporary holes that allow DNA to enter

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28
Q

how else can scientists inject DNA into an eukaryotic cell?

A

microscopic needles

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29
Q

PCR

A

Polymerase Chain Reaction - used to clone scanty or impure DNA

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30
Q

how many clones can PCR make?

A

billions in a few hours

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31
Q

what does PCR start with?

A

special kind of DNA polymerase (Taq), a supply of DNA nucleotides, single stranded DNA primers, and the DNA to be cloned in a test tube

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32
Q

how is the DNA prepared in PCR?

A

heated to separate the strands, then DNA primers hydrogen bond each strand, and DNA polymerase adds nucleotide in its 5 to 3 direction.

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33
Q

what clones the DNA in PCR?

A

the heating again and cooling cycle that repeats over and over

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34
Q

steps of PCR

A

Denature
Anneal
Extend

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35
Q

how are the DNA clones of PCR?

A

in small amounts/partially degraded

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36
Q

DNA fingerprints

A

DNA fragments

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37
Q

what is electrophoresis used for?

A

to analyze DNA by separating DNA/proteins into bands on the basis of sizes and electrical charge

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38
Q

what is Restriction Fragment Analysis used for?

A

compare different alleles of a gene or DNA of different individuals or species

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39
Q

what does Restriction Fragment Analysis involve?

A

involves treating the DNA molecules in question with restriction enzyme then doing gelelectrophoresis which yields different banding patterns RFLP

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40
Q

what is RFLP?

A

restriction fragment length polymorphism - when homologous chromosomes vary in length of fragments due to different cuts by restriction enzymes

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41
Q

why do the cuts of restriction enzymes vary?

A

homologous chromosomes can be different alleles

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42
Q

what happens after gel electrophoresis in restriction fragment analysis?

A

fragments are further analyzed by southern blotting

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43
Q

what is southern blotting?

A

putting gel from restriction fragment analysis in an alkaline solution and putting blotting paper and denatures it by breaking H bonds
then paper is exposed to a single stranded radioactive nucleic acid probe that forms complementary base pairs to the DNA on the blotting paper

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44
Q

how is restriction fragment analysis complete?

A

by exposing the radioactive probes to photographic film which yields specific DNA bands

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45
Q

Human Genome Project goal?

A

find the precise location of all an organism’s gene and introns

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46
Q

what did researchers map in the Human Gene Project?

A

genomes of humans, Ecoli, yeast, Drosophila, and mice

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47
Q

what can the mapped genomes confirm?

A

DNA sequences can be compared and confirm evolutionary connections between even distantly related organisms

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48
Q

3 domains of life/superkindgoms

A

Archaea, Bacteria, Eukarya

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49
Q

what did the completed genomes of the 3 domains of life support?

A

the theory that they represent the superkingdoms of life

50
Q

what is biotechnology making enormous contributions to?

A

diagnosing diseases

51
Q

how is biotech helping with diseases?

A

hundreds of human genetic disorders have been identified before the onset of symptoms
carrier of potentially harmful alleles can be identified as well

52
Q

what does Human gene theory allow for?

A

enables scientists to correct genetic disorders by replacing a defective allele with a functional one using recombinant DNA techniques

53
Q

what needs to happen for gene therapy of somatic cells to be permanent?

A

the cells tat receive the normal allele must ne ones that multiply throughout the patient’s life

54
Q

where can the new allele in gene therapy be inserted?

A

into the somatic cells of the tissue affected by the disorder in a child/adult or even the germ line cells (make gametes) or embryonic cells

55
Q

downside of gene therapy

A

ethicality and may lead to eugenics

56
Q

eugenics

A

an effort to control the genetic makeup of human populations

57
Q

what type of pharmaceutical products has DNA technology created?

A

proteins

58
Q

pharmaceutical products has DNA technology created for diabetics? correct dwarfism? reduce risk of heart attacks?

A

insulin
human growth hormone
tissue plasminogen activator

59
Q

what is the downside with the genetically engineered products?

A

developmental costs are high
market isnt broad
products are expensive

60
Q

why is DNA technology used in crime scenes?

A

every individual’s DNA is unique (except identical twins)

61
Q

what is RFCP used for in crime scenes?

A

common method to detect similarities and differences in DNA samples and only requires tiny amounts of blood or tissue

62
Q

DNA fingerprint

A

small portions in DNA that are highly variable from person to person

63
Q

Transgenic organisms

A

organisms that contain genes from another species, have also been developed by injecting foreign DNA into nuclei of egg cells or early embryos

64
Q

how have farming animals been treated with products made by recombinant DNA methods?

A

dairy cows injected with rBGH (recombinant bovine growth hormone) made by E.coli to raise milk production
BGH also improves weight gain cattle

65
Q

GMO

A

genetically modified organism

66
Q

how are plants easier to genetically engineer?

A

with most plants an adult can be grown from one cell

67
Q

what is the vector commonly used to move genes into plants?

A

plasmid from the bacteria Agrobacterium tumefaciens, and not E.coli

68
Q

what does the bacterium do?

A

infects and causes tumors called Crown Gall Disease

69
Q

crown gall causing plasmid

A

Ti (tumor inducing) plasmid

70
Q

what must scientists do when they insert a new gene into a plant using the Ti plasmid?

A

they must remove the genes that cause the disease and replace it with foreign DNA

71
Q

what do many of the genetically engineered plants have genes for?

A

herbicide resistance

72
Q

how does herbicide resistance help farmers?

A

helps to control weeds and not destroy crops

73
Q

what are many crop plants being engineered to resist?

A

insects, enabling farmers to reduce the need of chemical insecticides

74
Q

what are many fruits being genetically engineered to do?

A

contain genes that retard spoilage

75
Q

how is the slowing of spoilage done?

A

done by blocking the production of the ripening hormones (ethylene) so plants only produce less of these

76
Q

what does a single celled zygote undergo to give rise to many cells?

A

mitosis/cleavage

77
Q

are the cells that are risen the same?

A

no, they have differentiated into specialized kind of cells with specific structures and functions

78
Q

how are cells organized? system of organization?

A

cells- tissues - organs - organ system - organisms

79
Q

morphogenesis

A

the process that gives rise to the shape of the organisms and its parts

80
Q

what does morphogenesis lay out?

A

the body plan of an organism very early in the embryonic development

81
Q

problems in morphogenesis can lead to?

A

cleft palates

82
Q

most research done on development in done using model organisms such as?

A

drosophila
nematode C elegans
mouse
zebrafish
plant Arabidopsis

83
Q

what is the criteria for a model organism?

A

readily observable embryos
short generation times
small genomes
preexisting knowledge about the organism’s genes

84
Q

how can a whole new plant be grown?

A

from differentiated somatic cells since they are totipotent stem cells

85
Q

totipotent

A

cells retain the ability to form all parts of the adult organism

86
Q

do differntiated animals cells develop into a new organisms?

A

no

87
Q

how must you clone an animal cell?

A

the nucleus of an unfertilized egg is removed and then fused with a somatic cell from the animal to be cloned. normal mitotic divisions produce an embryo and then the embryo is inserted into a surrogate mother’s uterus where after gestation, an animal identical to the donor is born

88
Q

first cloned animal?

A

Dolly - a sheep containing chromosomal DNA identical to that of the nucleus of the donor in 1997

89
Q

what is the first evidence of differentiation?

A

differentiated cells make tissue-specific proteins

90
Q

what do muscle cells make?

A

myosin and actin

91
Q

what do muscle cells fuse to form?

A

an elongated, multinucleated skeletal muscle fiber that goes into the Go phase and stops the cell cycle

92
Q

where is the first difference that arises amongst cells in an embryo?

A

is from the cytoplasm of the unfertilized egg cell

93
Q

the cytoplasm contains proteins and organelles from who?

A

encoded by the maternal DNA

94
Q

cytoplasmic determinant

A

with each mitotic division, the cytoplasmic environment is different for each cell and this regulates the expression of genes affecting the fate of cells

95
Q

induction/inductive signaling

A

chemical signals between cells cause changes in nearby cells which in turn induces target cells to differentiate into specialized cells

96
Q

pattern formation

A

the spatial organization of tissues and organs develop in their characteristic places by this

97
Q

when does pattern formation begin?

A

early in the embryo when the animal’s basic body plan of 3D structure is arranged

98
Q

construction of body plan of Drosophila

A

head, thorax, abdomen

99
Q

the cytoplasmic determinants in the unfertilized egg do what?

A

provide information about the 4 axes

100
Q

4 axes

A

dorsal, ventral, anterior, posterior

101
Q

egg polarity genes

A

mother has these that code for cytoplasmic proteins to ensure the embryo’s axes line up

102
Q

what polarity protein do Drosophila have? what does it do?

A

Bicoid- anchors on the anterior end of the embryo and tell the developing organism “this end up”

103
Q

what had the study mutants in Drosophila led to?

A

a broad understanding of development

104
Q

defects such as extra set of wings or legs on fruit fly’s heads had helped researchers with what?

A

develop a genetic map or locations of specific genes

105
Q

embryonic lethal mutations

A

mutations leading to death at the embryo or larval stage

106
Q

how are fruit fly structures developed on the appropriate segments?

A

regulatory genes called homeotic genes

107
Q

what do the homeotic genes code for?

A

code for specific transcription factors and specify the types of appendages that will form and their

108
Q

what do the homeotic genes code for?

A

code for specific transcription factors

109
Q

three things homeotic genes do?

A

specify the types of appendages that will form
their correct location
and body segments

110
Q

what is interesting about the homeotic genes?

A

these genes are very similar throughout all kingdoms

111
Q

how long are homeotic genes in Drosophila?

A

180 nucleotides

112
Q

what are the homeotic genes called?

A

Homeobox

113
Q

what does the similarity of the homeobox gene sequence show?

A

it evolved very early in life and has been conserved virtually unchanged for millions of years

114
Q

do all homeobox control the identity of body parts?

A

no, but most are involved with development

115
Q

apoptosis

A

programmed cell death

116
Q

caspases

A

suicide proteins

117
Q

what happens in the cells destined to die in development?

A

cells trigger the activation of caspases

118
Q

what do caspases do next?

A

trigger the release of enzymes like proteases and nuceleases

119
Q

what happens to the targeted cells?

A

they shrink
nuclei condenses
get engulfed and digested by neighboring cells - phagocytosis

120
Q

apoptosis is essential for normal development of what?

A

the nervous system
lymphatic system
morphogenesis of human hands and feet preventing ebbed fingers and toes

121
Q

how is apoptosis linked to cancer?

A

in a normal cell with damaged DNA should trigger apoptosis, but cancerous cells continue to survive

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