Thinking

Question 1

What is a problem?

Answer 1

A problem arises when a living organism has a goal but does not know hot this goal is to be reached

Question 2

A problems 3 elements:

Answer 2

Starting state
Goal state
A set of processes (operators) that transform one state into another

Question 3

Two approaches to problem solving:

Answer 3

Behaviourist

Gestalt

Question 4

Behaviourist approach:

Answer 4

Study of behaviour as objective and observable
Simple stimulus response association
Trial and error

Question 5

Gestalt approach:

Answer 5

Problem solving is more than reproduction of learned response
Occurs through a process of restructuring and Insight

Question 6

Darwin argued:

Answer 6

Humans and animal minds similar

Question 7

Thorndike was concerned with:

Answer 7

Problem solving and high cognitive functions in animals

Question 8

Thorndike Study

Answer 8

Cats in a box
Time it took for cat to problem solve 
Trial and error chance behaviour
Reward learned 
Incremental rather than Insightful

Question 9

Kohler: The Gestalt approach

Answer 9

Chimps problem solving
Complex minds
Sultan 2 pokes together to reach fruit
Insightful rather than incremental trial and error

Question 10

Why the difference between Thorndike and Kohler?

Answer 10

Cats hungry and distressed
Chimps well fed and cared for
Primates closer to humans in genetic structure social structure and cognitive abilities

Question 11

Wallas 4 stages of creative thinking:

Answer 11

Preparation
Incubation
Illumination
Verification

Question 12

Preparation:

Answer 12

Problem formulated and initial attempts made to solve problem

Question 13

Incubation:

Answer 13

Problem set aside and no conscious work done on it

Question 14

Illumination:

Answer 14

Sudden inspiration new insight to how problem solved

Question 15

Verification:

Answer 15

Conscious work on problem develops and tests inspiration to provide full solution to problem

Question 16

Silveira: cheap necklace problem

Answer 16

Control group: necklace half an hour 55% solved
Exp group 1: necklace half hour with break 74% solved
Exp 2: 4 breaks 85% solved

Question 17

Evidence that incubation works:

Answer 17

Silveira: cheap necklace problem

Murray and Denny

Question 18

Murray and Denny Study:

Answer 18

Subjects divided into high and low ability groups use of objects test of creativity
20minutes to solve complex practical problem
Half subjects had break
Lower ability aided by distractor task
Higher ability distraction did not help
Incubation useful for problems that are found hard

Question 19

Barriers to success:

Answer 19

Functional fixedness

Mental set

Question 20

Functional fixedness:

Answer 20

People fixate on a property of the problem, cannot think about it in a different way

Question 21

Mental set:

Answer 21

Learn particular way of solving problem which often produces success but continue to use it even when inappropriate

Question 22

Functional fixedness studies:

Answer 22

Dunker
Box on wall
Participants fixated on box’s normal function
Luchins water jug problem

Question 23

Einstellung effect:

Answer 23

Mechanisation of thought

Question 24

Overcoming fixedness:

Answer 24

The nine dot problem

Question 25

Scheerer claimed:

Answer 25

Most people cannot solve this because they assume (are fixated) in believing they must stay within square

Question 26

What is it called when we sometimes feel closer to the solution that at other times

Answer 26

Tip of the tongue phenomenon

Question 27

Feelings of warmth:

Answer 27

Can predict how close to the solution you are

Question 28

How to measure phenomenon of insight:

Answer 28

Metcalfe's studies

Question 29

What is a valid logical inference?

Answer 29

Modus ponens and modus tollens

Question 30

According to Johnson-laird reasoning errors occur when:

Answer 30

Multiple mental models are required