The USA Conflict Home and Abroad: 2.2 Flashcards
Peaceful protests and their impact, 1963-65
1
Q
Describe the events of ‘Campaign C’ in Birmingham, Alabama, starting 2nd April 1963
A
- were many sit-ins, mass meetings, peaceful protest marches and boycotts
[] many adult protesters were arrested and put in segregated jails; MLK and Fred Shuttlesworth were among these
[] MLK wrote a letter to the public from jail, which inspired mass publicity about the events in Birmingham - SNCC trained children in non-violent protest since most adult protesters were in jail
- 2 May 1963, the first Children’s March took place
[] Bull Connor arrested around 900 of these children, some aged as young as six - 3 May 1963, the second Children’s March took place
[] the jails were full, so Bull Connor told the police to use dogs and extremely powerful and dangerous fire hoses on the children
[] many news reports and photos - caused worldwide horror and condemnation of US government
[] Kennedy spoke out and said he felt sick and ashamed
[] gave USSR Cold War ammunition against America
2
Q
Why was Birmingham, Alabama chosen for ‘Campaign C’ in 1963 ?
A
- was still completely segregated
- many black activists had previously been attacked there, like the Freedom Riders
- racist attacks were notorious, especially bombing of black churches, black homes and black schools
[] so common that Birmingham was nicknamed “Bombingham” - Bull Connor was the chief of police there, as was easily provoked into using extreme violence on innocent protestors and this would generate mass publicity and put pressure on federal government to take action
3
Q
Who organised ‘Campaign C’ ?
A
SNCC, SCLC and ACMHR
4
Q
Describe the short term effects of Campaign C in Birmingham (events on the 11th and 12th of May)
A
- desegregation timetable agreed for Alabama
- first significant riots against white violence (following bombings of black homes and businesses)
- 1000+ black students expelled for missing school via protest or imprisonment
[] the fact that federal government didn’t stop this is significant for demonstrating the limits to Kennedy’s allyship of civil rights (wanted to protect his own political career whilst still making some progress) - Kennedy sent federal troops into Alabama to control the rioting
[] SIGNIFICANT: tried to control the black riots and didn’t send in troops to protect black people from bombings
[] this is likely a demonstration of why black people grew in feeling as if they couldn’t rely on the government to protect them and make change
5
Q
Describe the long-term effects of Campaign C in Birmingham
A
- federal government developed a fear of widespread riots
[] police and government more likely to focus on stopping black riots than protecting black people from white violence
[] makes black people start to look less oppressed as a result of this - protests sparked off all over the USA and soon 143 cities had some desegregation
[] “some” = power of racist politicians in slowing progress, even when it is very apparent that it’s needed
[] the scale meant that politicians could no longer argue that civil rights was a “small issue” - many black people felt that progress was too slow, and forced desegregation only caused more white violence
- black Americans began to question the tactics of non-violent civil rights campaigners, especially after the violence and danger of the Children’s Marches
- civil rights became viewed as the most pressing issue for the USA (despite the Vietnam war brewing in the background, as well as the Cold War)
[] demonstrates the US’ self-consciousness about its presentation internationally, especially in regards to the federal government and the Cold War
[] also demonstrates just how widely civil rights protests and racist violence affected daily life
[] demonstrates the power that publicising extreme racist violence like that of Bull Connor in Birmingham, had in pressuring the country into action - government produced a tougher civil rights bill
- civil rights protesters very clearly saw that inviting white violence from particularly racist areas of the country and then publicising that violence would win them a lot of sympathy both nationally and worldwide, pressuring the federal government to take action against racists
[] HOWEVER, white racists also began to realise this, and slowly began to react less drastically in order to deny the protesters sympathy and publicity, thus making the protesters seem as if they were simply looking for trouble for no reason
6
Q
Describe the key features of the March on Washington, 28 August 1963
A
- was organised for equality in jobs and “freedom”
- 250 000 attended
[] largest political gathering in the history of the US at the time
[] 40 000 protesters were white
[] the size caused anxiety in government that riots would break out but the protest stayed good natured, demonstrating the non-violence of the protesters and allowing their demands to seem reasonable and rational - Washington DC was chosen because of the political importance
[] capital of the US
[] White House and Congress were situated there - broadcast worldwide
- civil rights activists gave speeches, with King speaking last
7
Q
Describe the significance of the March on Washington, 28th August 1963
A
- the size of the attendance demonstrated widespread support for civil rights across the country
[] politicians couldn’t argue that civil rights was a small or negligible issue being pushed by a loud minority
[] the fact that 40 000 protesters were white demonstrates the increase in white support of the civil rights movement, and meant that politicians were more likely to listen since white voices were involved - the crowd also showed that black and white people could co-exist and protest peacefully together
- had MASSIVE publicity since it was broadcast live around the world
[] the participation of famous people like Bob Dylan also drew the attention of people all over the world who otherwise would have had less personal interest in the March, and they acted as role models for many white people just starting to become allies of the civil rights movement - King’s ‘I have a dream’ speech
[] made white people feel entirely welcome in the civil rights movement and raised engagement and support for civil rights worldwide
[] cemented King as the spokesperson of the civil rights movement, as he spoke last and thus his sentiment was the most well remembered
[] made it evident worldwide that the aim of the civil rights movement and protests was not to create chaos or confusion or to get attention, but simply to have equality and equity with everyone else
8
Q
Why did the number of registered black voters in the north of the USA rise drastically between 1962 and 1964 ?
A
because President Kennedy, then President Johnson, both extremely supportive of civil rights (Johnson more than Kennedy), took office in the US
9
Q
What was Freedom Summer ?
A
an initiative set up by CORE and SNCC in 1964 in Mississippi in order to raise black voter registration
10
Q
Describe the events of Freedom Summer, Mississippi, 1964
A
- KKK burned 61 crosses across the country when hearing of the plans for Freedom Summer
[] showed the power and anger of the KKK
[] showed that the KKK and other racist organisations relied on intimidation of black people and activists to slow progress and make people afraid to make change - around 1000 volunteers sent to Mississippi to work with the black community, encourage voter registration, educate black children on their rights in Freedom Schools and teach how to pass the registration tests
[] most volunteers were white students from families who had money
[] their class and colour would make any violence against them bigger news and embarrass the US government more than violence against black activists - white people in Mississippi called the project an ‘invasion’
- KKK burned many black homes and businesses over the summer
- many black people lost their jobs for going to civil rights meetings, trying to register to vote and allowing their children to go to Freedom Schools
- 21 June 1964, Mississippi murders
[] Schwerner (white CORE), Chaney (black CORE), Goodman (white CORE) arrested whilst driving to Schwerner’s house, then released the same day
[] shot and murdered by KKK on way home
[] SCANDAL SINCE TWO WERE WHITE - 23 June, CORE and SNCC members found the bodies of 8 other murdered activists (black)
- 4th August, Chaney, Goodman and Schwerner’s bodies were found
- by the end of the summer, 17 000 black people had tried to register to vote, and 1600 succeeded altogether
[] shows power of KKK, WCC and racists in slowing progress and physically stopping people from making progress; also the brutality of these groups
[] made it clear that further protection of black voting rights and exercising these rights was needed
11
Q
Why was there a march in Selma, Alabama in March 1965 ?
A
- voter registration in Selma remained stagnant and low
[] Selma had the strongest WCC in Alabama, so intimidation and fear amongst the black community to register to vote was rampant
12
Q
Describe the events of the protest in Selma, led by the SCLC and King from January 1965 - 25 March 1965
A
- January 1965
[] King and SCLC invited by civil rights groups local to Selma to campaign for voter registration
[] happened at the same time as Johnson was stressing the need for a Voting Rights Act to make voting tests fairer
[] significant as the timing shows organisation and cemented King as the leader of the civil rights movement again
[] HOWEVER; some were against King going to Selma, and others welcomed him; shows the beginning of the split from non-violence and the basis for the Black Power movement - people in Selma protested against the voter registration tests and some tried to register to vote (were stopped)
[] Johnson spoke in support of black voter registration again - federal support was significant and influenced the ideas of the nation - 7 March 1965, 600 protesters tried to march from Selma to Montgomery
[] were stopped on Edmund Pettus bridge and police sprayed tear gas, poked people with electric cattle prods, clubbed people and arrested many black people - the majority including King fled from the bridge
[] embarrassment to the US government again when released to the press, as showed the frequent and ongoing abuse of black citizens
[] Sunday 7th became known as “Bloody Sunday” to the protesters, and sparked lots of support from both black and white people, and congressmen who spoke in favour of the protesters - 21-24 March, Johnson federalised Alabama’s state troops to accompany the new marchers from Selma to Montgomery, with King leading
- 25 March, King gave a speech to 25 000 people in Montgomery
13
Q
Describe the significance of the marches in Selma, both on 7th of March and the 21-24th of March, 1965
A
- put even further pressure on Congress and Johnson to pass legislature that protected black voters’ rights and their ability to exercise those rights
- gave Cold War ammunition to the USSR and made the world condemn America’s injustice towards its black citizens
14
Q
Describe the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (signed 2 July) and its effects/significance
A
- banned discrimination in (chain) businesses and workplaces
[] difficult to enforce without federal staff checking - gave federal government the right to enforce school desegregation
[] school boards still found ways around desegregation and not much happened - banned discrimination in voter registration tests
[] difficult to enforce without federal staff overseeing the tests - set up an Equal Opportunities Commission to investigate complaints about job inequality and discrimination
[] only could investigate complaints, which was a problem since many black people were too scared of white violence to complain
[] EOC was understaffed and couldn’t do much in total - gave the federal government the right to defund discriminatory state projects
- NOTE: white resentment towards black people increased due to the increase in black rights and regulations for white business etc.
- signed during Freedom Summer, emphasising its importance for raising publicity about the issues to be fixed in terms of discrimination
15
Q
Describe the Voting Rights Act of 1965 (signed 6 July) and its effects/significance
A
- banned voter registration tests and set one registration requirement
- allowed states to set their own qualifications to vote, BUT THESE HAD TO BE APPROVED FEDERALLY FIRST
- made sure that federal registrars oversaw voting registration in any state, and all states where less than 50% of entitled voters were registered
[] federal registrars registered over 79 000 people by the end of 1965 - NOTE: THIS WAS THE FIRST ACT THAT MADE ANY PROGRESS TOWARDS ENFORCING BLACK EXERCISING OF RIGHTS AND HAD A SIGNIFICANT EFFECT ON THE BLACK VOTING POPULATION, WHICH THUS INFLUENCED POLITICIANS’ POLICIES WHEN RUNNING FOR SEATS OR OFFICE
16
Q
Describe the significance of John Kennedy for making progress in civil rights from 1960-63
A
- appointed black people to high-level federal/governmental jobs, such as instating Thurgood Marshall in state courts
- pressed for civil rights laws to be passed
[] was assassinated before the 1964 Civil Rights Act however - intervened between white violence and black victims by using executive orders
- personally pressured for protection of black activists, like escorts for the Freedom Riders
17
Q
Describe the significance of Lyndon Johnson for making progress in civil rights from 1960-63
A
- appointed black people to high-level federal/governmental jobs, such as instating Thurgood Marshall in the Supreme Court
- pressed for civil rights laws to be passed
[] succeeded in passing the 1964 Civil Rights Act (2 July) and the Voting Rights Act (6 August) - intervened between white violence and black victims by using executive orders
- personally pressured for southern politicians’ (mainly Dixiecrats) support of civil rights progress
[] extremely good at this, since was from the south (Texas) and knew how to best get to them and manipulate them into supporting progress, which was CRUCIAL for passing laws
18
Q
When was Kennedy assassinated ?
A
22 November 1963
