Migrants In Britain: 4.2 Flashcards
(Black) migration to rebuild Britain post-war, Asian migrants post-war, migrants since the 1970s and race riots in Britain
Why did Britain pass the 1948 British Nationality Act ?
- needed help to recover after WW2
[] churches, schools, factories, railway stations and houses needed to be rebuilt
[] NHS needed workers as well as the London Transport - weren’t enough European migrants to fill these positions, so looked to the British Caribbean colonies/Commonwealth nations
Describe European migration to Britain after WW2
- 100 000s of Irish labourers crossed the Irish sea; biggest group of European migrants post-war
- many Italian labourers arrived
[] mainly economic migrants as Italy’s economy was based on agriculture and was very poor after Mussolini’s death in 1945 - 14 000 Hungarians arrived after the USSR put down a rising in 1956
- large numbers of people from displaced persons camps in Europe migrated to Britain
- some German prisoners of war chose to remain in Britain
- refugees from communist Eastern Europe arrived en masse to Britain
Who were the Windrush Generation ?
- migrants from the Caribbean who arrived after the 1948 Act was passed to help to rebuild Britain post-war
- many were placed in jobs they were highly overqualified for once in Britain due to colour bars and racism in employment
[] this changed with the Race Relations Act much later on
Why did Caribbean migration to Britain slow in the early 50s ?
got too expensive for any remaining people who wanted to migrate, as all the skilled people in elite jobs had already migrated; it was easier and cheaper to migrate to the USA
Why did Caribbean migration pick up again after 1952 and 1956 ?
- 1952, USA placed restrictions on migration per year (65 000 dropped to only 800 annually)
- 1956, TFL began to pay the journey fees of migrants which they paid back slowly over the course of their employment in London Transport
[] needed more labour and saw this as a good solution - in 1960, 58 000 settled in Britain as a result of steadily rising Caribbean migration to Britain since 1952
Describe Indian and Pakistani migration to Britain from 1948-1960
- with the partition of India in 1947 came much violence in both India and the newly formed Pakistan as the two attempted to sort themselves out financially, economically and politically
[] many migrants fled the violence to Britain in the years that followed - some were highly skilled professionals like lawyers and doctors, whilst others were rural labourers (these faced much more racism and struggle than their educated and often wealthy counterparts, though both were important in establishing their own communities in London and the surrounding cities)
Describe Kenyan Asian migration in 1967
- many Asian people had migrated to Kenya since the 19th century
[] most were central to Kenyan economic prosperity, working as bankers, businessmen, lawyers, teachers and doctors - Kenya gained independence from Britain in 1963
[] PM Kenyatta told Kenyan Asians to choose between being Kenyan or British; 95 000 chose to remain legally British and to keep their British passports - 1967, Kenyan government ruled that all non-Kenyan Asians (those who had chosen to remain legally British) were classed as foreigners and could only live and work in Kenya on temporary basis
[] many with British passports fled to Britain, fearing deportation, imprisonment or violence - by 1968, 20 000 Kenyan Asians had immigrated to Britain
[] the British government grew concerned with the influx and placed limits on migration from Kenya (the Commonwealth Immigration Act), however this decision was met with public outcry as was seen to be cruel and inhumane to those fleeing Kenya
[] the government caved to public pressure and allowed more Kenyan Asians into the country - were generally well received thanks to being skilled and were adept at setting up businesses once in England thanks to being twice-migrants, however faced racism and discrimination regardless, as did every non-white immigrant (though less than their unskilled counterparts)
[] HOWEVER, triggered massive resentment amongst some far-right people like Enoch Powell, who made the infamously racist “Rivers of Blood” speech, supported by thousands of Britons critical of migration
Describe Ugandan Asian migration in 1972
- Uganda gained independence from the British in 1962, and was the most prosperous African country at the time
[] largely due to the Asian migrants living in Uganda, who had built up the economy significantly and were skilled businessmen, doctors, teachers, lawyers etc. as in Kenya - 1972, PM Idi Amin announced that the entire Ugandan Asian population were to be expelled from the country
[] most likely a move taken in order to solidify Uganda’s independence in the eyes of its people and completely detach them from British colonialism (though why this was so late is uncertain) - PM Amin then issued a second decree two days later stating that all skilled professionals had to remain in the country or else be charged for committing treason (demonstrating their economic importance), but all other Asians had to leave
- Britain attempted to negotiate with the Ugandan government and failed
[] gave all Ugandan Asians the option of an Indian or British passport to help the forced migrants from Uganda
[] most chose a British passport as believed was more economically stable/secure than India, and migrated with nothing more than they could carry - less well received than Kenyan Asians on account of all the trained and skilled professionals like doctors, lawyers and teachers remaining in Uganda by law, but the businessmen amongst the migrants had experience setting up shop in new countries due to being twice-migrants, and were crucial in setting up stronger trading links between Africa and Asia for food and goods when arranging their businesses, boosting British economy
[] many settled in Leicester
What was the National Front party ?
- far-right political party
[] wanted to end immigration or the “immigration problem” and expel all immigrants from Britain - later joined with other fascist or far-right groups to form the British National Party
Who was Enoch Powell and what was the significance of his “Rivers of Blood” speech ?
- conservative MP for Wolverhampton
- his Rivers of Blood speech was extremely racist and anti-immigrant, inciting violence towards migrants, particularly in response to the sudden influx of Kenyan Asian migrants in 1967
[] compared himself to a Roman prophet (technically incorrect; Sybil, the actual prophet, wasn’t Roman) who predicted a Roman civil war and the River Tiber in Rome “foaming with much blood” - Powell seemed to think that the continuing of migration would lead to much violence (even incited it himself) and thus supported the aims of parties like the National Front in regards to immigrants
[] resulted in him being expelled from the shadow cabinet and his political career effectively ending after the speech - 110 000 letters of approval from anti-immigrant Britons flooded into his office, thanking him for “saying what they were too afraid to”
[] reflects the tensions and anti-immigrant sentiments that often reared their heads when sudden immigration took place, largely out of fear of lack of good jobs, good housing and strain being put on the NHS/London Transport/governmental relief systems for the English as opposed to the migrants
[] this as well was reflected in Powell’s speech with the anecdotes of a fictional white woman unable to find hospital beds whilst she was in labour, good housing or good employment/good wages (immigrants tended to drive wages down rather than up)
When did Britain join the European Economic Community (EEC), later the European Union (EU) ?
1973
Why did Britain join the EEC/EU in 1973 ?
- the EEC/EU was founded based on the idea that free movement between its member countries would allow their economies to prosper; Britain wanted further economic prosperity after it began to become more stable post-war in the 60s and 70s
[] people would move to where there were jobs and economic opportunities within the EU, as travel was made easier without the requirement of a VISA etc.
-> employers in these countries could find workers with the required skillsets
-> businesses can grow and prosper more quickly due to finding labour more quickly
-> workers and businesses pay more tax to the government as a result of higher profits and wages
-> the economy grows and more workers are needed for new industries and new businesses
-> cycle repeats
When did 9 Eastern European states join the EU and how was this received by the British public ?
- 2004
- received with much apprehension, anger and discomfort
Why was there backlash from the British public in 2004 when 9 Eastern European nations joined the EU and what was the impact of this ?
- up until the 1990s, these nations were communist in the USSR and so their economies were weak
[] economies only got weaker after the USSR’s dissolution in 1991 - many were unskilled labourers - after the USSR’s dissolution and joining the EU, thousands migrated to Britain
[] migrated to earn money TO SEND BACK TO THEIR FAMILIES; took money out of circulation in the British economy and did some damage financially to Britain due to the sheer volume of migrants doing this
[] caused tensions amongst the British and the migrants
[] the fact that many of these immigrants were unskilled also caused tensions and fears that they were “taking jobs from the British” - also fears of putting strain on the NHS and housing sectors, decreasing quality of service for British people - migration rose steadily, leading to political and social issues
[] 2016, 52% of Britain voted to leave the EU as a result of anti-immigrant feelings; however the close call demonstrates that these feelings were far from widespread, despite being common
When did Britain sign up to the UN Convention on Refugees ?
1951
Describe the effects of the UN Convention on Refugees on refugee migration to Britain from 1951 to the early 2000s
- Britain legally obliged to offer asylum to foreign refugees who had evidence of persecution to back up their requests for asylum
[] numbers claiming asylum increased due to more and more people realising it was an option and deciding to migrate to improve their and their families’ lives - from 1987 to 2002, the amount of asylum applicants had risen from slightly over 4000 to over 84 000
[] the system for checking asylum requests began to fail under the heavy workload and understaffing
[] desperate refugees often resorted to paying “people smugglers” to illegally get them into Britain, as the asylum requests were often backed-up and took a long time to process due to understaffing etc., and many couldn’t afford to wait that long to gain safety from persecution
[] INCREASED ANTI-IMMIGRANT FEELING IN BRITAIN, AND TO THIS DAY POLITICIANS ARE UNDER PRESSURE FROM THOSE AGAINST ILLEGAL IMMIGRATION TO MORE DILIGENTLY SECURE BRITISH BORDERS
Describe some demographics of asylum seekers who migrated to Britain
- people fleeing civil war in Somalia, Kurdistan, Zaire, (former) Yugoslavia and Afghanistan often sought asylum in Britain
- Britain offered asylum to those facing persecution both from their own governments and external governments, unlike countries like France and Germany
[] made Britain a more popular option for asylum seekers and led to an increase of immigration
[] many refugees also speak some English as a result of English being the most widely spoken language in the world, and so Britain is a better choice than other countries (easier to find work, housing etc. when you know the language of the country) - foreign intervention in Iraq, Libya and Syria, especially due to the Gulf Wars and general conflict in the Middle East, created more refugees who fled to Britain
- the 1985 Schengen Agreement meant more open borders between European nations
[] meant refugees could travel through Europe to Calais
[] Britain was not part of this agreement
Describe the key events and causes of the race riots in Brixton, 10 - 13 April 1981
causes:
[] disproportionate and discriminatory misuse of the SUS law by policemen in relation to wrongly arresting and searching black people in Brixton
[] poor housing, high crime rates and high unemployment in Brixton caused unhappiness and tensions, especially since around half of young black men were unemployed; more than their white counterparts
[] early April 1981, police began Operation Swamp 81 to target street crime, and so a sudden increase of police officers in Brixton caused many tensions (also enabled wider racist misuse of the SUS law and police brutality grew)
[] Brixton’s black community argued they were being persecuted, especially as the police force were exempt from the Race Relations Act of 1976, causing even greater tensions between (white) police and Brixton’s black community
[] direct trigger was accusation of police brutality
events:
[] 10 April, riots began in Brixton, with most rioters being second-generation young men born to Windrush Generation parents; they were unhappy with the police brutality and racism in Brixton largely
[] until the 13th, rioters fought police
[] resulted in 300 injured people and £29 million (2021) of damage to property
Describe the key events and causes of the race riots in Burnley, 22 - 24 June 2001
causes:
[] tensions in wider Britain (Bradford, Oldham and Burnley); all of which involved large Asian migrant communities
[] the closing of many previously prosperous mills in Burnley in the 1980s to be replaced by cheap textile imports; led to much economic hardship among migrant communities
[] 25%+ of Burnley accommodation was deemed “unfit” to live in, with at least 40% claiming state benefits (unpopular amongst white Britons, who claimed that immigrants were stealing their taxpayer money in claiming benefits)
[] no multicultural community in the town, with de facto segregation in employment and schooling - led to easy breakouts of tension due to unfamiliarity and lack of desensitisation to other cultures, allowing racist and anti-immigrant attitudes to be common
[] Asians felt that whites were treated better than them by the town council, whilst white people felt the opposite; this conflict in belief led to tensions and accusations of the other side lying etc.
[] direct trigger was a fight between white and Asian drug dealers outside a nightclub
events:
[] Friday 22 June 2001, outside a nightclub in Burnley, a fight broke out between rival white and Asian drug dealers
[] the fight spread, and an Asian taxi driver was attacked with a hammer by a group of white youths
[] rumour spread that the taxi driver was killed and violence/retaliation escalated on the Asian side of the conflict, which then prompted further white violence and so on
[] on the night of the 23rd, a group of Asian men attacked the Duke of York Pub, and its customers fought back
[] hundreds became involved in the riot over the weekend, and firebombing and assaults grew, turning the riots into a racist conflict
What was the Scarman Report and its impact on the black community in Brixton ?
- government enquiry into the Brixton race riots
[] found that there had been “disproportionate and indiscriminate” use of the SUS powers by police against black people; that “racial disadvantage was a fact of current British life” but that “institutional racism “ didn’t exist in the Met Police - the SUS law was repealed later in 1981, and a Police Complaints Authority was created
[] lessened the impact of police brutality and racism in Brixton towards the black community, however denied institutional racism, making complaints hard to have actioned, and did nothing to address the long-term causes of the riots (unemployment, poor housing etc.)
