The Animal Body and Principles of Regulation- Chapter 42 Flashcards
What are the 4 levels of organization in a vertebrate body?
(1) cells
(2) tissues
(3) organs
(4) organ systems
Humans have ___ different types of cells
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smallest division of life, come from other pre-existing ones
cells
groups of cells that are similar in structure and function
tissue
combinations of different tissues that form a structural and functional unit
organ
groups of organs that cooperate to perform the major activities of the body
organ system
the vertebrate body contains ____ principal organ systems
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inner tube of vertebrate body plan
digestive tract
outer tube of vertebrate body plan
main vertebrate body
inside the body are several ______ that can be indentified
body cavities
What are the 4 primary tissue types?
(1) Epithelial
(2) Connective
(3) Muscle
(4) Nervous
covers the surface of the the vertebrate body, germ layers, membranes and glands, provides protective barrier
epithelium
tightly bound together, replaced throughout life, attached to other tissues by fibrous membranes, has polarity
epithelial cells
secured side of epithelial cell
basal surface
free side of epithelial cell
apical cell
allows for diffusion, absorption, and secretion
one layer
layers creates a dense barrier to abrasion and chemicals
several layers
____ cells allow for material to diffuse through
flat
______ cells absorb into themselves and secrete moderately
cubed
_____ cells absorb, secrete, and process chemicals at the greatest rate
thick
glands form from _________ epithelia
invaginated
connected to epithelium by a duct, sweat, sebaceous and salivary glands
exocrine glands
ductless, secret hormones directly into the blood
endocrine glands
derive from embryonic mesoderm, all have abundant extracellular material, divided into speical and proper
connective tissue
What are the 3 kinds of connective tissue proper?
(1) loose
(2) dense
(3) adipose
What are the 3 kinds of special connective tissue?
(1) cartilage
(2) bone
(3) blood
extracellular material composed of protein fibers, gels, salts, fluids, fats
matrix
__________ produce the matrix
cells
cells that produce and secrete protein fibers in extracellular matrix, fibers include thick, tough collagen fibers and stretchable elastic fibers
fibroblasts
contains large amounts of a gel-like substance, strengthened by protein fibers
loose connective tissue
contains less gel and more collagen than loose connective tissue, collagen fibers may be parallel to one another (tendon/ligaments) or gon in many different directions (dermis of skin, white of eyes)
dense connective tissue
fat cells, also occur in loose connective tissue, develop in large groups in certain areas, form adipose tissue
adipose cells
cartilage cells
chondrocytes
contains the matrix of chondroitin, collagen and elastin fibers, flexible with great tensile strength, found in joint surfaces and other locations
cartilage
bone cells, hardened with calcium salts around collagen fibers
osteocytes
extracellular material is the fluid plasma red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets
blood
found in the walls of blood vessels and visceral organs, mono-nucleated, involuntary contraction
smooth muscles
attached to bone by tendons, cells are long and multi-nucleated, voluntary and striated
skeletal muscles
smaller, interconnected cells in heart only, mono-nucleated, interconnections called intercalated disks, muscle cells form from a single functioning unit
cardiac muscle
contains the nucleus of the neuron
cell body
highly branched extensions, conduct an electrical impulse towards the cell body
dendrites
single cytoplasmic extension, conducts impulses away from the cell body
axon
do not conduct electrical impulses, support and insulate neurons, eliminate foreign materials in and around neurons, form an insulating cover
neuroglia
systems that communicate and integrate, detect external stimuli, coordinate the body’s responses
nervous, sensory and endocrine systems
consists of two interrelated organ systems that provide the body with support and movement
musculoskeletal system
for regulation and maintenance, regulate and maintain the body’s chemistry
digestive, circulatory, respiratory, and urinary systems
defense systems
integumentary and immune
dynamic constancy of the internal environment
homeostasis
Explain a negative feedback mechanism:
(1) change in condition, stimulus detected
(2) sensors detect
(3) information is fed into integrating center, compares to set point
(4) message sent to effector, initiates response
(5) response brings conditions back to set point
(6) once at set point, sensor no longer detects change
negative feedback loops often __________ each other to produce finer degree of control
oppose
increasing activity of one effector is accompanied by decrease in the other
antagonistic effectors
mechanism that does not lead to homeostasis, often a cumulative response not conducive to balancing a system, part of larger mechanism, includes blood clotting and contraction of uterus during childbirth
positive feedback
chemical reactions are incredibly dependent on ___________
temperature
what determines body temperature?
internal factors such as metabolism and external factors that affect heat transfer, behavior
heat produced + heat transferred =
body heat
heat transfer by electromagnetic radiation
radiation
heat transfer directly between two objects
conduction
heat transfer by the movement of gas or liquid
convection
heat transfer by conversion of water to gas
evaporation
use of energy to produce heat, can alter metabolism, shivering generates heat
thermogenesis
thermoregulation in vertebrates is controlled by the ______________
hypothalamus
use metabolism to generate body heat and maintain temperature above ambient temperature
endotherms
do not use metabolism to produce heat and have body temperature that conforms to ambient temperature
ectotherms
fall between ectotherms and endotherms
heterotherms
produce no heat and have low MBR, advantage is low energy intake, not capable of of sustained high energy activity, includes most fish, amphibians and modern reptiles
ectotherms
must regulate body temperature using behavior, shivering reflex to warm thoracic muscles, reptiles place themselves in varying locations of sunlight and shade
ectotherms
produce heat, high metabolic rate, allows sustained high energy activity, requires constants and high energy intake includes mammals, birds, some sharks
endotherms
can increase metabolism to raise temp if necessary, often need insulation to prevent wasting internal heat, evaporative cooling occurs in sweating and panting, vasoconstriction limits blood flow to surface, vasodilation increases blood flow
endotherms
How do endotherms increase body temperature?
detected by neurons, stimulate the heat-losing center in the hypothalamus, dilation of blood vessels and production of sweat
How do endotherms decrease body temperature?
detected by neurons, stimulate heat promoting center by hypothalamus, constrict blood vessels to reduce sweating
cause a rise in temperature, act on the hypothalamus to increase the normal set point to a higher temperature, produce fever (normal response to infection)
pyrogens
state of dormancy, reduced MBR and temperature, reduce the need for food intake
torpor
extreme state of torpor that lasts for weeks or months
hibernation
have much higher metabolism to keep warm, lose more heat due to large surface area, must be well insulated in cold environments
small animals
have lower metabolic rate, retain heat better due to high volume, usually have little insulation but can overheat
large animals
often do not need specialized breathing structures, exchange gas through skin due to large surface area
small animals
have lungs, gills, structures add surface area to allow for absorption of gas
large animals
less volumes = less mass, can have narrow limbs to support body
small animals
more volume = more mass, limbs and neck thicker
large animals
