Semester 1 Final Review Flashcards
1
Q
above; closer to the head
A
superior
2
Q
below; closer to the feet
A
inferior
3
Q
closer to the midline of the body
A
medial
4
Q
farther from the midline of the body
A
lateral
5
Q
front side of the body
A
anterior/ventral
6
Q
back side of the body
A
posterior/dorsal
7
Q
farther from the outer layer of the body
A
deep
8
Q
closer to the outer layer of the body
A
superficial
9
Q
what are the 4 types of macromolecules?
A
carbohydrates
lipids
proteins
nucleic acid
10
Q
most of these end with -ose and are soluble
A
carbohydrates
11
Q
what are the 3 classes of carbohydrates?
A
monosaccharides
disaccharides
polysaccharides
12
Q
name 3 monosaccharides
A
glucose
fructose
galactose
13
Q
simple sugar
A
monosaccharides
14
Q
2 glucose bonded to another monosaccharide
A
disaccharides
15
Q
name 3 disaccharides
A
maltose
sucrose
lactose
16
Q
glucose+glucose
A
maltose
17
Q
glucose+fructose
A
sucrose
18
Q
glucose+galactose
A
lactose
19
Q
100s or 1000s of glucose chains; not soluble
A
polysaccharides
20
Q
what are the functions of carbohydrates? 2
A
energy storage, structure
21
Q
has lots of carbon and hydrogen bonds, but few oxygen bonds; no polymers or monomers
A
lipids
22
Q
are lipids soluble or insoluble?
A
insoluble
23
Q
what are the 3 classes of lipids?
A
fats
phospholipids
steroids
24
Q
has double the amount of energy(ATP) than polysaccharides
A
fats
25
what is the formula for fats?
CH2
26
what is the structure of fats?
glycerol(alcohol) and 3 fatty acid tails
27
what are the 2 types of fats?
saturated fat
unsaturated fat
28
fat that is filled with hydrogens so all carbons must have single bonds
saturated fat
29
why is saturated fat unhealthy?
the single bonds all lay straight across and stack, making the fat very dense with no air, so water is unable to break this down and it sits in the body; this can cause heart attacks or strokes; it is solid at room temperature
30
3 fatty acid tails and at least 1 has a double bond, therefore is not completely filled with hydrogens
unsaturated fat
31
why is unsaturated fat healthier than saturated fat?
the double bonds cause the fatty acid tails to not stack and leave air in the fat, causing it to be less dense; water can break this down and it is liquid at room temperature
32
glycerol+2 fatty acid tails+phosphate; makes up the cell membrane, is permeable or semipermeable on allowing materials to go back and forth
phospholipids
33
4 fused rings; ex. cholesterol, testosterone, and estrogen; cholesterol is used as a membrane buffer
steroids
34
a polymer(made up of monomers); polymer=peptide and monomer=amino acid
protein
35
protein makes up ___% of the weight of the cell
20
36
what are the functions of protein? (7)
-support
-movement
-transport
-buffer
-metabolic regulation
-defense
-recognition/communication
37
examples of proteins???
enzymes
active sites
substrates
38
speed up reactions
enzymes
39
where substrates fit to make an enzyme work properly
active sites
40
proteins that fit inside active sites
substrates
41
2 types: DNA and RNA; polymer(made up of monomers), monomer=nucleotides and polymer=_______________; have the info to make all proteins
nucleic acids
42
what are the 3 types of RNA?
tRNA
mRNA
rRNA
43
carry amino acids to ribosomes
tRNA
44
is the ribosome
rRNA
45
carries info from DNA(makes copies)
mRNA
46
what are the 3 parts of a nucleotide?
phosphate group
5-carbon sugar
nitrogen base
47
formula of phosphate
PO4
48
3 examples of 5-carbon sugar
pentose
ribose
deoxyribose
49
what are the 5 nitrogen bases?
adenine
thymine
guanine
cytosine
uracil/urasine
50
what is a purine made up of?
adenine and guanine
51
what is a pyrimidine made up of?
thymine, cytosine, and uracil/urasine
52
what is the monomer of nucleic acids?
nucleotides
53
what are the 2 functions of DNA?
-is the recipe for putting proteins together
-carries genetic info for the cell and does not leave the nucleus
54
where is DNA and RNA located?
everywhere throughout the cell
55
what are the 2 functions of RNA?
-copy of the original recipe
-carries genetic info that leaves the nucleus
56
what are the 4 types of tissue?
epithelial
connective
muscle
nervous
57
composed of epithelic and glands; covers all internal and external surfaces
epithelial
58
examples of internal epithelial tissue (3)
cavities, tubes, and glands
59
example of external epithelial tissue
skin
60
what are the 4 functions of epithelial tissue?
-physical protection
-controls permeability
-provides sensation
-secretion
61
what are the 4 functions of epithelial tissue?
-physical protection
-controls permeability
-provides sensation
-secretion
62
what are the 2 types of glands in epithelial tissue?
exocrine and endocrine
63
move a secretion to the free surface side of epithelial; exocytosis
exocrine
64
4 examples of exocrine secretion
mammary gland
salivary gland
sweat
oil
65
moves a secretion away from the free surface side into surrounding tissue area
endocrine
66
3 examples of places endocrine secretion
thyroid, testes, and ovaries
67
what are the 3 requirements for connective tissue?
-cells must be separated
-must have ground substance
-there must be fibers in between cells
68
what are the 3 types of fibers found in between connective tissue cells?
collagen
elastic
reticular
69
thickest fibers, unbranched, stackable, gives strength and support, flexible
collagen fibers
70
thick fibers, wavy, branched, recoil when stretched (pina of ear)
elastic fibers
71
thinnest fibers; lots of branches(goes in multiple directions)
reticular fibers
72
what are the 3 different ground substances in connective tissue?
-connective tissue proper(gel)
-liquid connective tissue(liquid)
-supportive connective tissue(solid
73
what are the 2 types of connective tissue proper(gel-like substance)?
loose and dense connective
74
does not have many protein fibers, is not very organized, and has lots of gel/space between cells
loose connective
75
what are the 4 types of cells in loose connective?
-fibroblasts
-adipocytes
-WBCs
-mast cells
76
what cells produce protein fibers?
fibroblasts
77
what are fat cells called?
adipocytes
78
which cells are vasodialators?
mast cells
79
what are the 2 types of WBCs in loose connective?
phagocytes and macrophages
80
where is loose connective located?
under all skin and around most organs and major blood vessels
81
what are the 4 functions of loose connective?
storage
cushion
insulation
defend against infection
82
in what tissue are cells dominated by fibers and is avascular?
dense connective
83
what are the 3 types of dense connective?
-tendon
-ligament
-irregular/reticular dense connective
84
connect muscle to bone; composed of collagen fibers
tendon
85
connect bone to bone; contain both collagen and elastic fibers equally
ligament
86
contain reticular fibers; flexible; attaches skin to anywhere else
irregular/reticular dense connective
87
what are the 2 types of liquid connective tissue?
blood and lymph
88
what are the 3 cells in blood?
RBCs
WBCs
platelets
89
what are the 3 functions of blood/blood cells?
RBCs-carries oxygen
WBCs-defend against infection
platelets-clotting
90
where is blood located?
arteries, veins/blood vessels, and capillaries
91
what cell is in lymph and what is it used for?
WBCs and they are used for defense against infection
92
where is lymph located?
lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes?
93
what are the 2 types of supportive connective tissue?
cartilage and bone
94
what type of cell makes up cartilage?
chondrocytes
95
ground substance is similar to rubber cement or an eraser; all avascular(therefore cannot repair itself)
cartilage
96
what are the 3 types of cartilage?
hyaline, elastic, and fibrous
97
the most common type of cartilage; contains mostly collagen fibers; located between the ribs and sternum; surrounds and supports respiratory tubes
hyaline
98
mostly elastic fibers; stained black; found in the epiglottis, pina of ear, and tip of the nose
elastic
99
contains both collagen and elastic fibers and they are more abundant than the other types of cartilage; has "fish/shark eyes; found in between vertebrae and hip bones"
fibrous
100
ground substance is cement-like; contains almost all collagen fibers to prevent shattering; one of the most vascular tissues(therefore can repair itself)
bone
101
found at the end of bones
lacunae
102
levels of organization: chemicals/molecules found within the cell; ex. H2O, O2, CO2, sucrose, acetylcholine?
chemical/molecular
103
levels of organization: groups of chemicals/molecules working together for a function; ex. organelles, mitochondria, nucleus, etc. OR RBC, WBC, chondrocyte, etc.
cellular
104
levels of organization: group of cells working together for a function; ex. connective, epithelial, muscular, nervous
tissue
105
levels of organization: a group of tissues working together for a function; ex. heart, brain, stomach
organ
106
levels of organization: a group of organs working together for a function; ex. circulatory, respiratory
organ systems
107
levels of organization: all organ systems working together to sustain life; ex. a human
organism
108
what is the cell found in nervous tissue?
neuron
109
what are the 3 types of muscle?
skeletal
cardiac
smooth
110
long fibers, unbranched, multinucleated, striated, voluntary
skeletal muscle
111
maintains blood pressure; branched, striated, involuntary, short, 1 nucleus
cardiac muscle
112
found lining tubes and cavities; short, 1 nucleus, unstriated, can shorten in all directions, involuntary, unbranched
smooth muscle
113
what are the 5 functions of bone?
-support/structure
-protection
-production of blood cells
-storage
-leverage
114
strongest, most dense type of bone
compact bone
115
not organized; spaces between spikes(trabecula)
spongy bone
116
circular layers of bone
lamella
117
contain blood vessels that go from cell to cell
caneliculi
118
cells: make the bone when told to do so because of high levels of calcium
osteoblasts
119
cells: maintain bone; bone is made by osteoblasts, which become ____________
osteocytes
120
cells: huge cells with 50 nuclei and lots of vesicles containing acid and digestive enzymes; increase blood levels when low
osteoclasts
121
what does the outside of the periosteum do?
attach structures to bone
122
what does the inside of the periosteum do?
contain stem cells that become osteoblasts when needed
123
lines the cavity of the bone marrow, contains stem cells
endosteum
124
large tube in the middle of each osteon; contains and artery, vein, and nerve
harvesian canal
125
hyaline cartilage found at joints
articular cartilage
126
osteocytes are arranged in concentric layers around a central/harvesian canal; basic functional unit of compact bone; only in compact bone
osteon
127
the making of ATP from glucose(organic macromolecule) with the presence of oxygen
aerobic respiration
128
what are the 3 stages of aerobic respiration?
glycolysis, kreb's/tca cycle, and etc
129
what is the only stage in anaerobic respiration?
glycolysis
130
enzymes take glucose and cut it in half(2 C3H6O3) and 2 carriers take 1 H off of each half (2 C3H5O3); this is done in the cytosol of the cell; hydrogen is released
glycolysis
131
what is the result of glycolysis?
2 pyruvates(C3H5O3), 2 carriers, and 2 ATP
132
what is TCA?
tricarboxylic acid
133
done in the matrix/cytosol of the mitochondria by enzymes; pyruvates are brought in and 10 more carriers are taken out; all H's are gone on carriers; waste is CO2
kreb's/tca cycle
134
done in the inner mitochondrial membrane by membrane proteins; 12 carriers are brought in along with O2; P is put back on ADP to make ATP
etc
135
what is ETC?
electron transport chain
136
how long does stored ATP last during activity?
1-2 seconds
137
what is used after all of the stored ATP is used?
creatine phosphate(CP)
138
what controls the production of creatine phosphate?
creatine phosphokinase (CPK)
139
creatine+ATP=
creatine phosphate+ADP
140
how much ATP is made from glycolysis?
2
141
how much ATP is made from kreb's/tca cycle?
2
142
how much ATP is made from etc?
32
143
no gasping=
you are getting enough oxygen to your muscle cells
144
gasping=
you are not getting enough oxygen to your muscle cells
145
why do you run out of energy quicker during an anaerobic workout?
you only get 2 ATP per glucose, whereas in aerobic respiration, you get 36 per glucose
146
yellow, orange pigment found/stored in the stratum germinativum; used to produce Vitamin A; for the retina of the eye
carotene
147
what is the function of carotene?
to stabilize stem cells
148
a fibrous protein that makes up parts of the integumentary system; hair, nails, and cells in the epidermis
keratin
149
what are the layers of the cutaneous membrane from bottom to top?
stratum germinativum
stratum spinosum
stratum granulosum
stratum lucidum
stratum corneum
150
stimulated when it comes in contact with UV damage; made by melanocytes
melanin
151
why does skin turn a red/pink color when embarrassed or overheated?
blood vessels are completely open and blood fills the papillary layer
152
why does skin turn a blue/purple/grey/ashen tone and what is this called?
not enough blood goes to the papillary layer and it is caused by bad circulation, heart attack, respiratory and lung issues; called cyanosis
153
what is the function of lipids?
cell communication
154
what are HDL and LDL?
high density lipo(protein) and low density lipo
155
what are the 3 stages of interphase?
G1, S, G2
156
what are the 5 stages of interphase?
prophase
metaphase
anaphase
telophase
cytokinesis
157
first gap; normal life of the cell
G1
158
DNA is doubled(replication); done by enzyme DNA polymerase
S
159
double everything else(cytosol, organelles)
G2
160
centrosomes form and move to the poles from the microtubules
prophase
161
all chromosomes are lined up at ___________ plates; centrosomes are at pole; all chromosomes are at microtubules
metaphase
162
chromosomes split and move to poles
anaphase
163
al chromosomes are at the poles and nuclear membranes form
telophase
164
cleavage furrow forms cell into 2 cells
cytokinesis
165
what are the 4 functions of hair?
-block UV light(head)
-deflect blows to the head
-traps dust/debris(pubic)
-attractant to the opposite sex
166
lead hair into and put it into follicle; produces sebum; holocrine secretion; stimulated by sex hormones
sebaceous glands
167
what is the function of sebum/sebaceous glands?
lubricate hair/skin
168
what are the 2 types of sweat/sudiferous glands?
apocrine and merocrine
169
uses merocrine secretion; only located in the armpit and groin; odorus; secretion is cloudy in appearance
apocrine sweat glands
170
uses merocrine secretion; covers 99% of the body; secretes swet; anti-microbial region
merocrine sweat glands
171
release earwax; trap materials
ceruminous glands
172
apocrine secretion; makes milk
mammary gland
173
what 2 accessory structures are stratified squamous?
hair and nails
174
attached to the basement membrane with hemidesmosomes
stratum germinativum
175
what are the 3 types of cells in the stratum germinativum?
-germinativum cells
-germinativum cells' daughter cells
-melanocytes
176
thin; new cells that are pushed up from the stratum germinativum still go through mitosis; includes dermal papilla and epidermal ridges for more surface area for stem cells
stratum spinosum
177
makes granules; cells fill with keratin from granules
stratum granulosum
178
one clear layer; not in thin skin, only in thick
stratum lucidum
179
top layer; cells have become keratinized; about 15-30 layers thick and takes cells about 4 weeks to get here
stratum corneum
180
contain dermal papilla; contains loose connective tissue, blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels
papillary layer
181
under the papillary layer; has lots of reticular fibers and some collagen and elastic fibers; less strength but strength goes in multiple directions due to the branching of reticular fibers
reticular layer
182
epithelial+loose and dense underneath=
cutaneous membrane
183
what stimulates the contraction of a skeletal muscle?
central nervous system(CNS)
184
what is the name of the site where a nerve comes in contact with a skeletal muscle?
neuromuscular junction
185
what is the function of a neurotransmitter?
communication with muscles
186
where is the synaptic cleft located?
in the space between nerves and muscle
187
what breaks a neurotransmitter down after it is released into the synaptic cleft?
an enzyme
188
chains of glucose with no branches; plant
amylose
189
chains of glucose with branches; plant
amylopectin
190
chains of glucose with lots of branching
glycogen
191
required for the human diet; contains fiber, which cleans intestines; fungus uses this in their cell walls
cellulose
192
what are the 2 divisions of the nervous system?
central(CNS) and peripheral(PNS)
193
what are the 3 functions of the nervous system?
-receive info (from internal and external conditions of the body)
-coordinate all incoming info (from sense and preset conditions)
-send info away (to contract/not contract a muscle)
194
is made up of the brain and spinal cord
CNS
195
is made up of cranial and spinal nerves
PNS
196
how many cranial nerves are there?
12
197
how many spinal nerves are there?
31
198
what are the 2 main branches of the PNS?
afferent branch and efferent branch
199
any incoming info from the CNS; sensory nerves
afferent division
200
what are the 2 divisions of the afferent branch of the PNS?
somatic sensory receptors and visceral sensory receptors
201
sensory info from conscious outside world info(ex. smell, touch, temp) and our position in it
somatic sensory receptors
202
sensory info of internal conditions(ex. pH of blood, Ca+, Na+)
visceral sensory receptors
203
any incoming info from the CNS; sensory nerves
afferent branch
203
take away info/exiting the CNS; motor neurons
efferent branch
203
take away info/exiting the CNS; motor neurons
efferent branch
204
any incoming info from the CNS; sensory nerves
afferent branch
205
what are the 2 divisions of the efferent branch of the PNS?
somatic nervous system and autonomic/visceral nervous system
206
controls voluntary, skeletal muscles
somatic nervous system
207
controls involuntary, smooth and cardiac muscles
autonomic/visceral nervous system
208
what are the 2 branches of the autonomic nervous system?
sympathetic and parasympathetic division
209
fight or flight response; heart speeds up, more blood to skeletal muscles and less blood to other areas with other muscle(ex. digestive system)
sympathetic division
210
rest and digest; heart slows down, more blood is directed to digestive system and less to skeletal muscle
parasympathetic division
