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GLE 2024 (Day 2) > SEDIMENTARY PETROLOGY (WEATHERING AND EROSION) > Flashcards

SEDIMENTARY PETROLOGY (WEATHERING AND EROSION) Flashcards

1
Q

Weathering vs Erosion

A

Weathering process involve insitu breakdown of rock material in a particular location while
Erosion is the removal of rock material from a geographic location which intitiates its transport to another location

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2
Q

Disintegration vs Decomposition

A

Disintergration - physical breakdown into smaller fragments of same composition can be caused by mechanical or bioligical processes while Decomposition - breakdown of rock material that changes its chemical composition and alters rock mineralogy

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3
Q

Factors that affect Rate and Type of Weathering

A
  1. Climate
  2. Rock Type
  3. Slope
  4. Time
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4
Q

Climate of Disintegration

A

Cold and Dry Climate

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5
Q

Climate of Decomposition

A

Warm and wetter Climate

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6
Q

Source of Sed Rocks

A

Provenance

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7
Q

What type of slope favors long term decomposition?

A

Gentle Slopes

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8
Q

Fractures with no tangential movement has taken place

A

Joints

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9
Q

Joints during weathering are mostly formed due to

A

Decrease in Confining Pressure

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10
Q

another name for hoodos

A

spires

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11
Q

Pressure exterted on buried rock objects

A

Lithostatic or Confining Pressure

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12
Q

Decrease in Lithostatic Pressure

A

Unloading or decompression

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13
Q

When rocks expand by this much they tend to fracture

A

1-2%

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14
Q

Rocks fractures that open sub-parallel to Earth’s Surface and tend to form under upwardly convex surfaces such as domes and ridges in homogenous rocks like granites

A

Sheet joints

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15
Q

In rocks experience sheet joints what is the direction of the maximum tensile stress

A

Perpendicular to the convex Surface

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16
Q

Used to describe sheet joints that resemble the curved surface of an onion

A

Exfoliation

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17
Q

occurs when preexisting fractures and weak surfaces are enlarged by the expansion of water as it freezes

A

Frost Action or Shattering

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18
Q

Frost Wedging vs Frost Heaving

A

FW occurs along fractures oriented steeply (Perpendicular) to Earth’s Surace FH occurs on surfaces parallel to the earth’s surface

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19
Q

Process which may pry rock material apart as the crystal grows in farcture or pore spaces

A

Crystal Growth

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20
Q

Occurs when minerals such as clays and micas EXPAND when wetted

A

Slaking

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21
Q

This results from daily or seasonal changes in rock temperature and may cause significant amounts of disintegration

A

Thermal Volume Change (Insolation)

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22
Q

Disintegration of rock due to heating or change in temp

A

Spalling

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23
Q

How does Disintegration enhances decomposition

A

By increasing the surface area

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24
Q

An interplay between Disint and Decom in which massive, well jointed rocks such as granite, grabbro and basalts weather in spheroidal forms

A

Spheroidal Weathering

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25
Q

this is wehere three chemical active faces intersect

A

Corner

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26
Q

The most significant agent in decomposition

A

Downwad Percolating Water

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27
Q

Occurs when a mineral or other soil component is wholly or partially dissovled during chemical decomposition

A

Dissolution

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28
Q

When CO2 gas dissolves in water this form

A

Carbonic Acid H2CO3 (aq)

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29
Q

When carbonic acid reacts with calcite it produced calclum ions dissolved in Bicabonate Ions in the process called

A

Carbonation

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30
Q

In what place is karst topography named after?

A

Karst Region, Slovenia

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31
Q

Occurs when ions are directly exhanged between a mineral and a solution

A

Ion Exchange

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32
Q

IN what climate is feldspar decomposition faster?

A

Warm because soil waters are rich in H-ions and thus acidic

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33
Q

Most abundant mineral in the crust

A

Feldspars

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34
Q

Removal of Potassium from Illite converts it into

A

Kaolinite common in acidic soils

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35
Q

A chemical reaction between a mineral and water in which dissolved Hydrogen ions and/or hydroxyl ions are added to form one or more new minerals

A

Hydrolysis

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36
Q

In most hydrolysis reaction whats mostly the orig mineral?

A

Silicic

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37
Q

What mostly is the resulting product?

A

Hydroxide or Clay Mineral

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38
Q

The most abunant group of new minerals produce during chemical decomposition and the most abudant constituent of mud fraction of detrital sediments in soil

A

Clay minerals

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39
Q

Size of Clay sediments

A

<4micrometer

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40
Q

Hydrolysis of Mn bearing olivine produceds

A

Pyrolusite (MnO2)

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41
Q

This involves addition of water to a crystal structure during reaction between a mineral and the aqueous solution

A

Hydration

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42
Q

Reverse of hydration and reults from the removal or loss of water

A

Dehydration

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43
Q

When hematite undergo hydration it produces what mineral? Hydrated Hematite

A

Goethite

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44
Q

A chemical reaction in which one or more electrons are transferred from a cation in the mineral to oxygen thus increasing the valence cation.

A

Oxidation

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45
Q

Is the production of an oxide mineral required in oxidation reaction?

A

No, only the loss of electron

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46
Q

Oxidation of Fayalite results to

A

Hematite

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47
Q

During such reaction the valence of iron increases from what to what

A

Fe+2 to Fe+3

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48
Q

Oxidation of Manganese Silicate (Rhodonite) results to the formation of

A

Manganite

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49
Q

Oxidation of Pyrite results to the formation of

A

Hematite

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50
Q

Reaction which involve the loss of electrons

A

Reduction

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51
Q

Example of Reduction reaction

A

Hematite to Pyrite Tranformation

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52
Q

Organic hydrocarbon ring complex produced directly by LICHEN (algae) and indirectly by deacy of humus and which tend to bind metallic elements thus removing them from solution

A

Chelates

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53
Q

Process w/c often involves the exchange of Hydrogen ions from the chelating agen to the soluton and metal ions from the solution to the chelate (Hydrogen in excange of Metal)

A

Chelattion

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54
Q

Implication of the release of hydrogen ion and addition to soil water

A

Lowers the pH of the Solution and makes it more acidic

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55
Q

The higher the CO2 content of the soil

A

The more acidic the soil water would be since there is a higher conc. Of dissolved Hydrogen

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56
Q

Concenration of dissolved solids in mineral water

A

250ppm

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57
Q

concentration of dissolved solids in Rain water

A

10ppm

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58
Q

Addition of this mineral in soluble form is used to produce water in breweries

A

Gypsum

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59
Q

large scale dissoluton result in the formation of large cavities known as that frequently contain underground streams that enter the subsurface down disslution features and emerge as cave springs

A

Cave

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60
Q

Circular ovoid depression formed by dissoluton or collapse

A

Dolines or sinkholes

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61
Q

Solid inorganic components of residual soils

A

Detrital Seds

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62
Q

Detritas which are residual minerals and lithic fragments of orig parent rock which have survived decomposition

A

Resistates

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63
Q

New Mineral produced by Oxidation?

A

Hem, Goethite, Pyrolusite

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64
Q

New minerals produced by Hydrolysis?

A

Clay

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65
Q

Minerals that resist decomposition are

A

chemically stable

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66
Q

What is the bond of resistant minerals

A

Covalent

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67
Q

Chemical stability of minerals depend on

A

1) Climate
2) Soil Geochem

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68
Q

Inverted Bowens and applied to geological processes involving mienral stability

A

Goldich Stability Series

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69
Q

What is Goldich Rules

A

Susceptibility of Common Igneous Minerals is inversely proportional to their crystalliztaion Temp.

Minerals which crystallizes at high temp is prone to dissolution and or less table under surface temp

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70
Q

High temp minerals which are unstable at lower temp and low pressure environments at the surface

A

Oli, Pyx, Amph Ca-Plag

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71
Q

Mineral which becomes depleted from the resistate Population

A

Halite, Calciete, Olivine, Pyx

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72
Q

Minerals which are enriched in the resitate po

A

Qtx, Clay, FeO

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73
Q

Malakas Grp

A

Hematite, Gibbsite, Qtx, Rutile, Toutmaline, Zircon

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74
Q

Saks Group

A

Clay, Muscovite, Orthoclase, Biot, NaPlag, Amph

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75
Q

Mahina Grp

A

Ca Plag, Pyx, Oliv, Halite, Calcite

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76
Q

What is the relationship between erosion rates and population or distribution of Unstable Minerals?

A

The lower the erosion rate the lesser the concentration of Unstable minerals in the resistate because of enanced decomposition

Higher Erosionn rates promote dispersion of unstable mienrals in areas of deposition and thus higher proportion

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77
Q

Factors affecting Erosion (RVPEA)

A

Relief
Vegetaion
Precipitation
Erosional Agent

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78
Q

How do relief affect erosion

A

High Relief High Erosion

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79
Q

How does vegetation affect erosion

A

High Vegetation Low Erosion Rate

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80
Q

Agen which is most powerfull in terms of erosion

A

Glacier or Ice

81
Q

Where is wind erosion most effective?

A

areas which are sparsely convered by vegetation and with low rainfall (rel.dry)

82
Q

Rate at which precipitation increases erosion

A

350-400 mm/yr because eof the presence of hardpan soil, minimal inflitation, poorly vegetated soil

83
Q

Rate at which precipitation decreases erosion

A

350-400 - 890-1015/mm yr thich vegetative cover retard erosion

84
Q

Most abundant new minerals produced by decomposition, particularly of hydrolysis

A

Clay mienrals

85
Q

IN terms of composition, Clay is under what mineral group ?

A

Phyllosilicates

86
Q

In terms of texture, whats the size of clay particles?

A

<0.004 mm in diameter which may or may not be clay in mineralogy

87
Q

Structures of Phyllosilicates?

A

?two or more sheets or layers connected by shared bondings
?separated by interlayer sites

88
Q

Three major types of Sheets or layers in Clay Structures

A

1) S-Layer (Silica rich)/ T-layer
2) G-Layer (Gibbsite)/ O-layer Al-rich
3) B-Layer (Brucite)Fe-Mg Rich

89
Q

How many nodes are there in an octahedral Layer?

A

6

90
Q

How many nodes are there in a tetrahedral layer?

A

4

91
Q

How many major groups of clay are there?

A

4

92
Q

The distance between layers hich can be extremeley helpful in distinguishing between clay minerals in XRD

A

Repeat Distance

93
Q

Clay major Groups

A

Group

94
Q

Hybrid clays which contains layers sequence of more than one type

A

Mixed Layer Clays

95
Q

Clays that lack interlayer constituents which may have been removed by pore waters during decomposition or other types of alteration

A

Degraded Clay mienrals

96
Q

Conditions at which degraded clay minerals occu

A

Acidic conditions

97
Q

aka lateritic soils

A

oxisols

98
Q

Formation of insoluble Fe and Mn oxides and hydroxides

A

Decomposition of Ferromag silicates and Fe bearing sulfides

99
Q

Mineral responsible for reddish color of soil

A

Hematite

100
Q

mineral responsible for yellow brown color of soil

A

Limonite and goethite

101
Q

What coloration does manganese mineral produce to soild

A

Black to dark gray

102
Q

How does Bauxite form?

A

when decomposition of clay mienrls dissolve silica leaving Al combined with Hydroxyl and Oygen and some water

103
Q

IN what conditions does bauxite form?

A

Acidic, Warm, Arid Climates

104
Q

Common minerals in Bauxite

A

Gibbsite

105
Q

Why is bauxite considered more as an ore mineral?

A

Because Al can be easily isolated from Oxide and hydroxide than from Silica

106
Q

Solid in which Calcite and Aragonite, Gypsum and Anhydrite are abundant

A

Caliche Soil/ Aridosols

107
Q

Soils which develop in ANOXIC, REDUCING environments and contains Pyrite

A

Histosols

108
Q

small clumps of partially indurated material composed of precipiatted minerals in Soils

A

Soil Peds

109
Q

Soild Crusts produced by precipitation of minerals from soils

A

Durisols or Petrosols or Hardpan

110
Q

Largely unconsolidated surficial deposits produced by weathering processes capable of supporting rooted plant life

A

Soils

111
Q

Soils produced from weathering of bedrock

A

Residual Soils

112
Q

Transported sediments

A

Transported or Alluvial Soils

113
Q

Proportoions of major component of soil

A

5 25 25 45
Organic Matter
Air
Water
Mineral and Rock Particles

114
Q

Partially decayed, dead oranic matter

A

Humus

115
Q

Contains more clay than sand and silt

A

Clay soil

116
Q

A term used for soil that contain subequal proportion of Sand, Silt and Clay Soils

A

Loam

117
Q

Importance of Soil

A

Natural Resources
Structure Bearing Materials
Water Flters and Contamenant Sinks

118
Q

Soil layers produced by in-situ weathering

A

Soil Horizons

119
Q

Vertical Layers of multiple soil horizons

A

Soil Profile

120
Q

Top layer of soil profile which have not been truncated by later erosion

A

Epipedons

121
Q

Sequence of Soil Horizons from Top to Bottom

A

O,A,E,B,C, R

122
Q

Horizon consisting largely of organic material and said to be formed by dark brown to brown epipedon

A

O horizon

123
Q

Differentiate Upper O and Lower O

A

Upper O is mainly plant litter such as loose leaves and other recognizable organic debris while the lower O is made up of partly decomposed organic matters (Humus) in which plant structures are no longer indetifiable

124
Q

Horizon largely composed of mineral matter with up to 30% humus

A

A Horizon

125
Q

O and A horizon combines

A

Topsoil

126
Q

A light colored layer contains little organic material and where finer mterials are washed our or carried away mostly compose of quartz

A

E Horizon

127
Q

Other term for E horizon

A

Zone of Eluviation

128
Q

Washing out of fine soil components or the downard removal of solid particles and dissolved ions

A

Eluviation

129
Q

This is the process of depletion of inroganic soluble materials from the upper soil with the aid of meteoric water percolation downward

A

Leaching

130
Q

The process by which materials are translocated downward to be added to the lower part of the soil

A

Illuviation

131
Q

This is where muh of the material removed from E horizon is deposited and is characterized by reddish to yellowish color and where bauxies are formed

A

B Horizon

132
Q

Other term for B horizon

A

subsoil and Zone of Accumulation

133
Q

What is the effect of the accumulation of fine clay particles

A

Enhancement of water retention in subsoil

134
Q

This forms in extreme cases in B hoizon in which clay accumulation form a very compact and impermeable layer

A

Hardpan

135
Q

Mineral precipitation in Bhorizon binds the soil particles together into hard, nodular zones, or into completely induratedsubhorizons

A

Duricrust

136
Q

Duricrust compose primarily of calcium carbonate

A

Calcrete/Petrocalcic/Caliche Soil

137
Q

Duricrust composed of Gypsum

A

PetroGypsic

138
Q

Duricrust composed of Silica

A

Silcrete

139
Q

Partially cemented clods of soil particles of various size that give soil crumbly lump apperance

A

Peds

140
Q

Concentrations of Illuviated materials such as clays or iron oxides that occur as layers or that enveloped less altered cores

A

Cutans

141
Q

Prolate to equant hard lumps formed by mineral precipitation and include concretions and nodules of all sizes

A

Glaebules

142
Q

This is where the soil-forming processes are Active and that living roots and other plant and animal life are largely confined

A

Solum or “True Soil”

143
Q

Horizons that make up the True Soil

A

O,A,E,B

144
Q

Soil layer characterized by partially altered parent material which makes it easily identifiable compared to other layers known also as Soil Mantle

A

C Horizon

145
Q

Largely unweathered bedrock

A

R Horizon or Reholith Horizon

146
Q

Soils which have well developed profile due to stable conditions over an extended time span

A

Mature

147
Q

Soils which lacks horizon altogether

A

Immature

148
Q

Soils that contain more than 50% sand and gravel by weight

A

Corase-grained Sand

149
Q

CoarSe grained sand with less than 5% fines

A

Clean Soils

150
Q

Coarse grained sand with more than 12% fines

A

Dirty Soil

151
Q

Soils that contain more than 50% Silt plus clay

A

Fine Grained Sand

152
Q

amount of Stress a soil can bear without failing by rupture or plastic flow

A

Soil Strength

153
Q

the measure of change in soil strength that results from changes in Water Content or other external disturbances such as vibrations, excavation,and loading that stress soils

A

Soil Sensitivity

154
Q

Classfiication of soils in terms of behaviour when moisture content changes

A

Atterberg Limits

155
Q

Four classification of Atterberg Limits

A

1) Brittle Solids
2) Semi-Solid Soils
3) Plastic Soils
4) Liquid Soils

156
Q

Boundary between Brittle Solid and Semi Solid Soils below which soils do not shrink as additional moisture is lost during drying

A

Shrinkage Limit

157
Q

Boundary between Semi Solid Soils and Plastic Soil and is the water content at w/c soil defroamtion changes from rupture to plastic flow

A

Plastic Limit

158
Q

Characteristics of a plastic soil

A

Decreases strength, deform more easily and less cohesive in increasing moisture content

159
Q

The measure of a soil’s cohesiveness, which is sense as a sticky cohesive feel to the touch

A

Plasticity

160
Q

Whats the characteristics of Soils with low clay content

A

Non-cohesive, low plastic limits

161
Q

Plasticity and Clay content

A

The more the clay the more plastiic the soil is the poorer its quality in terms of engg use

162
Q

separates plastic soil from liquid soil and conditions in which soil lose their shear strength and begin to flow

A

Liquid Limit

163
Q

Soils with low liquid limit

A

Non cohesive Sands and Coarse Silts

164
Q

Soils with higher liquid limit

A

Cohesive Clay rich soils

165
Q

Phenonmenon in which on non cohesive water saturated sands and coarse silts lose their strent during an eathquake and soil is turned into a quicksand-like material

A

Liquefaction

166
Q

The range of water contents over which the soil behaves as plastic substance

A

Plasticity Index

167
Q

Formula for Plasticity Index

A

PI=LL-PL

168
Q

PI of of Sand and Silt rich soils which are not very cohesive

A

<5%, small changes in water content can cange the soil from semi solid to a liquid state

169
Q

PI of Clay?

A

High which means soils are rich in Smectite and are extreely unstable

170
Q

expresses the tendency of soils to change volume when wetted

A

shrink-swell potential

171
Q

Characteristics of poor soil that musnt be used as substrates for structure

A

1) High sensitivity
2) High Shrink Swell ration
3) High Plasticity Index

172
Q

Plots which sows behaviour of soil, its plasticity index versus liquid limit

A

Casagrande Diagrams

173
Q

The tendency of the soild to consolidate and lose volumes

A

Compressibility

174
Q

Soils with variable compresibility tend to?

A

settle unevenly causing variations in the subsidence of the surfaces

175
Q

The capacity of a material to hold water in its intergranular spaces

A

Porosity

176
Q

Formular of Porosity

A

(Volumer of %Pores/Total Rock Vol) *100

177
Q

expresses the rate of fluid flow through a material

A

Permeability

178
Q

Expression of Permeability

A

Darcy’s Law

179
Q

Who formulated Darcy’s Law?

A

Henry Darcy

180
Q

What does Darcy’s Law states?

A

Flow rate = Cross Sec Area (Hydraulic Conductivity x (hydraulic gradient (delta h/L))

Q= A [K x (h/L)]

181
Q

Slope of the water table which is change in height divided by distance

A

Hydraulic Head

182
Q

A measure of permeability that varies depending upong viscosity, density and effective permeability and acceleration due to gravity

A

Hydraulic Conductivity = (DensityxAcc due to Gravity xEffective permeability)/Fluid Viscosity

183
Q

What indicates higher permeability

A

higher pore size and interconnectedness which increases as partice size and sorting increases

184
Q

Hydraulic Conductivity of Clays

A

10^-6 cm/s

185
Q

Hydr. Conductivity for Silts

A

10^-4 cm/S

186
Q

Hydraulic conductivity for Sands

A

10^-2 to 10^-3 cm/s

187
Q

Hydraulic conductivity for Gravels

A

10^-1 to 10^1 cm/s

188
Q

Rocks layers with high permeability such as Sands and Gravels which permit storage and tranmission of water

A

Aquifers

189
Q

Rocks layers with low permeability such as Clay-rich layers and retard fluid flow

A

Aquitard

190
Q

Practical use of Permeability

A

1) Contaminant Studies in te subsurface
2) Determination of water flow in aquifers
3) Efficient Dispersion of Water Materials in Septic Tanks
3) Rate and Direction of Disperson of Water Borne Pollutants

191
Q

Former soils which have been buried beneath the surface by subsequent deposition and are common along regional unconformities where long term weathering in continental environments is followed by period of deposition

A

Buried Soils

192
Q

Buried soils that have been uncovered and exposed at the earth surface

A

Exhumed Soils

193
Q

Soils that formed under conditions not related to the present climate ancient soils

A

Paleosols

194
Q

Study of Ancient Soils

A

Paleopedology

195
Q

study of Soils

A

Pedology

196
Q

Time marked when free oxygen became first abundant in the atmosphere as evident with a green to gray-white reduced paleosol

A

2.0Ga (Paleoproterozoic)

197
Q

What can imply presence of organisms in a soil

A

Low C13/C12 Ratio or depressed compared to the current background values because high ang C12

198
Q

marks the early miocene

A

Wispread of Grasslands and mollisols

199
Q

A global cooling attributed to depletion of CO2 in the atmosphre

A

L. Eocene

GLE 2024 (Day 2) (41 decks)

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