Research methods part 2 Flashcards
What makes a sample representative?
A representative sample reflects the wider population accurately, allowing generalization of results.
What are the three principles of participant selection?
The principles are suitability, sample size, and accessibility.
Define “suitability” in participant selection.
Suitability ensures participants match characteristics needed for research, defined by inclusion and exclusion criteria, such as demographics, diagnoses, or availability.
How is sample size determined?
Through statistical methods like power analysis to ensure the sample is large enough to detect effects but not unnecessarily large to conserve resources.
What is power in research, and what is a good power value?
Power is the probability of correctly rejecting a false null hypothesis. A power value of 80% or higher is generally considered valid.
What are the two main types of hypotheses in hypothesis testing?
Null Hypothesis (H₀): Assumes no effect or difference between study groups.
Alternative Hypothesis (H₁): Assumes there is an effect or difference between study groups.
What does “accessibility” refer to in participant selection?
Accessibility involves the logistical, ethical, and practical methods of recruiting participants, such as sampling procedures and participant agreements.
What is the difference between probability and non-probability sampling?
Probability Sampling: Every member of the population has a known chance of being selected. Example: Randomly selecting 100 students from a list of all university students using a lottery system.
Non-Probability Sampling: Participants are chosen based on convenience or other non-random criteria. Example: Surveying students in the library at a specific time because they are readily available.
What are common types of probability sampling?
Simple Random Sampling: Equal chance for everyone. Example: Drawing names from a hat.
Systematic Random Sampling: Select every k-th person. Example: Every 10th person on a list.
Cluster Sampling: Randomly select groups, not individuals. Example: Survey all students in 10 randomly chosen schools.
Stratified Sampling: Divide into groups, then randomly sample equal amount. Example: Group students into strata based on their year (freshmen, sophomores, juniors).
Calculate Proportions: If you want to survey 100 students:
Freshmen: 50% → 50 students
Sophomores: 30% → 30 students
Juniors: 20% → 20 students
Random Sampling Within Each Stratum: Randomly select 50 freshmen, 30 sophomores, and 20 juniors.
What is convenience sampling in non-probability sampling?
Selecting participants based on their availability or ease of access.
Example: A researcher surveys students sitting in a campus cafeteria because they are readily available.
What is the difference between cluster and stratified sampling?
Cluster Sampling: Randomly select entire groups (clusters) and survey everyone in them.
Example: Choose 3 cities and survey all residents.
Stratified Sampling: Randomly sample individuals from all subgroups (strata).
Example: Sample 30% men and 70% women to match population ratio.
Describe quota sampling and how it differs from stratified sampling.
Quota Sampling:
You need 50 males and 50 females for a study. You go to a park and ask any male or female you see until you reach 50 of each. (non propperbility)
Stratified Sampling:
You have a list of all males and females in your population. You split them into male and female groups, then randomly select 50 from each group using a lottery or software. (propperbillity)
What is snowball sampling?
A non-probability method where current participants help recruit more participants, often used for hard-to-reach groups.
Example: If you’re studying underground musicians, you start with one musician who introduces you to others in their network, and the process continues.
What are the steps for systematic random sampling?
Create a List: Compile a list of every member in the population.
Example: A list of 1,000 students at a university.
Determine Sampling Interval (k): Divide the population size (N) by the desired sample size (n).
Example: For 1,000 students and a sample of 100,
𝑘
=
10
k=10.
Randomly Select a Starting Point: Pick a random number between 1 and
𝑘
k.
Example: If the starting point is 4, select every 10th person starting from the 4th.
Select Participants: Include individuals at positions 4, 14, 24, 34, and so on.
What are common types of data collection techniques?
Interviews: Asking participants directly.
Example: A psychologist interviews clients about their anxiety symptoms.
Questionnaires: Written surveys to gather responses.
Example: Measuring opinions about remote learning through an online form.
Observation: Watching and recording behaviors.
Example: Observing children’s play behavior in a daycare.
Performance Tests: Assessing participants’ abilities or skills.
Example: IQ tests.
Physiological Measures: Measuring biological responses.
Example: Heart rate monitoring during stress experiments.
What is Cronbach’s Alpha?
Cronbach’s Alpha is a critical tool in research and testing to ensure scales and questionnaires are
reliable.
Cronbach’s Alpha -> It indicates how well the items in a scale measure the same underlying concept
or construct.
What are the advantages of in-person interviews?
High response rates.
Allows close personal interaction with respondents.
What are the four main ways to conduct surveys?
In-person interviews.
By telephone.
Through the mail.
On the internet.
What are the main types of interview structures?
Structured: Fixed questions, no deviation.
Example: Asking every participant the same set of predefined questions.
Semi-structured: Mix of predefined and open-ended questions.
Example: Exploring general work satisfaction with room for deeper responses.
Unstructured: Broad, open-ended, informal discussions.
Example: “Tell me about your childhood” in a clinical setting.
What is a Likert scale in questionnaires?
A psychometric scale used to measure agreement or frequency on a statement.
Example:
Strongly Disagree (1)
Disagree (2)
Neutral (3)
Agree (4)
Strongly Agree (5)
What is social desirability bias in questionnaires?
When participants respond in a way they think is most socially acceptable rather than truthfully.
Example: Underreporting alcohol consumption or overreporting exercise habits.
What are performance tests?
A: Standardized measures assessing psychological variables like intelligence or attention.
Example: Administering the Stroop Test to measure cognitive flexibility.
What is internal consistency in standardized instruments?
A measure of how well test items assess the same construct.
Example: A personality test using Cronbach’s Alpha to ensure reliability.
What are latent traits?
Latent traits are internal characteristics that cannot be directly observed but can be inferred through responses to specific questions or behaviors.
Example: Extroversion is a latent trait measured using questions like, “Do you enjoy being the center of attention?”
What is the difference between one-dimensional and multidimensional measurement?
One-dimensional: Measures a single factor and gives one total score.
Example: A depression scale measuring only mood symptoms.
Multidimensional: Measures multiple factors, giving several scores.
Example: The Big Five Personality Inventory measuring traits like openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.
What is self-plagiarism?
A: Self-plagiarism is presenting one’s own previously published work as original.
What ethical code addresses plagiarism?
A: The APA Ethics Code Standard 8.11 explicitly states that plagiarism violates ethical standards in scholarship.
What is Direct Plagiarism?
Direct plagiarism is when you take another person’s work and pass it off as your own without changing anything.
What is Self-Plagiarism?
Self-plagiarism is presenting your own previously published work as original.
What is Paraphrasing Without Credit?
This occurs when you change the wording of your sources’ information but fail to give credit to the original source.
What is Mosaic Plagiarism?
Mosaic plagiarism happens when you partially paraphrase content so that your paper is a mix of your words and your sources’ words.
Example: Using direct phrases from a source, interwoven with your own writing, without quotation marks or proper citation.
What is Accidental Plagiarism?
A: Accidental plagiarism is when you forget to cite sources or unintentionally misrepresent information.
Example: Including a statistic from an article but forgetting to include the reference.
What is Misattribution?
Misattribution occurs when you attribute information to the wrong source.
Example: Citing a quote from one author but referencing a different article in the citation.
What are the four elements of a reference for a scientific article in APA Style?
Author: Who is responsible for the work?
Date: When was it published?
Title: What is the work called?
Source: Where can it be retrieved?
Example: Smith, J. (2020). The study of cognition. Journal of Psychology, 45(2), 123–134. https://doi.org/10.1234/abcd123.
What is a DOI, and why is it important in references?
A DOI (Digital Object Identifier) is a unique alphanumeric string that provides a permanent link to a digital object, such as a journal article.
How do you reference a scientific article with several authors in APA Style?
A: Use the author-date format and list up to 20 authors.
How do you format in-text citations for a scientific article?
Parenthetical citation: (Smith & Lee, 2020).
Narrative citation: Smith and Lee (2020) found that emotional regulation is critical for mental health.
What happens if you have doubts about APA referencing?
Use resources like the APA Style Guidelines website or university library guides.
What is the difference between using (&) and “and” in APA Style citations?
(&) is used in parenthetical citations.
Example: (Smith & Johnson, 2020).
“and” is used in narrative citations.
Example: Smith and Johnson (2020) stated that…
When is it best to use quotation or paraphrasing?
Quotation: Use when:
The wording is memorable or impactful.
You need to preserve the exact phrasing (e.g., definitions).
You’re analyzing the author’s specific choice of words.
Example: “Plagiarism undermines academic integrity” (Smith, 2020, p. 45).
Paraphrasing: Use when:
Summarizing or simplifying the source.
Integrating information into your writing style.
Comparing or synthesizing ideas from multiple sources.
Example: Smith (2020) emphasized that plagiarism damages academic honesty.
What are the key elements of a book reference in APA Style?
Author(s): Last name, Initial(s).
Year of publication: In parentheses.
Title: Italicized, capitalize only the first word and proper nouns.
Publisher: Full name of the publisher.
Example: Livingston, J. A. (1994). Rogue primate: An exploration of human domestication. Roberts Rinehart.
How do you reference a book with editors instead of authors?
Include the editors’ names followed by “(Eds.)” or “(Ed.)”.
How do you format a journal article reference in APA Style?
Author(s): Last name, Initial(s).
Year: In parentheses.
Title: Capitalize only the first word and proper nouns.
Journal name: Italicized and capitalize main words.
Volume (italicized), issue (non-italicized in parentheses), page range.
DOI or URL (if online).
Example: Smith, J., & Brown, T. (2020). The role of creativity in education. Journal of Psychology, 45(2), 123–134. https://doi.org/10.1234/abcd123
How do you format a chapter in an edited book in APA Style?
Chapter Author(s): Last name, Initial(s).
Year: In parentheses.
Chapter title: Only the first word and proper nouns capitalized.
Editors: Include “(Eds.)” after the names.
Book title: Italicized.
Page range of the chapter in parentheses.
Publisher name and DOI/URL (if online).
Example: Aron, L., Botella, M., & Lubart, T. (2019). Culinary arts: Talent and their development. In R. F. Subotnik, P. Olszewski-Kubilius, & F. C. Worrell (Eds.), The psychology of high performance: Developing human potential into domain-specific talent (pp. 345–359). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000120-016
What is the rule for citing page numbers in APA?
Include the page number only for direct quotations, not paraphrasing.
Example: “Plagiarism undermines creativity” (Smith, 2020, p. 45).
How do you cite a webpage in APA Style?
Author or Organization: If no individual author, use the organization.
Date: Use “n.d.” if no date is available.
Title: Italicized.
URL.
Example: World Health Organization. (n.d.). Ensuring a coordinated and effective mental health response in emergencies. https://www.who.int/mental-health-response
Q: What are the formatting rules for an APA reference list?
Double-space all entries.
Use a hanging indent for each entry (first line flush left, others indented).
List sources in alphabetical order by the first author’s last name.
What ethical concerns were raised by Milgram’s study?
Participants were deceived about the true purpose of the study (obedience, not memory).
The procedure caused significant emotional distress to participants.
Participants believed they were harming someone, raising questions about informed consent.
Why are ethics important in research?
Ethics ensure a balance between the rights of research participants and the pursuit of scientific knowledge. They promote:
Objectivity by avoiding issues like data falsification.
Public trust in research.
Collaboration through trust and accountability.
According to Shamoo and Resnik (2015), what are the key reasons for adhering to ethical norms in research?
Promote research aims like knowledge and truth.
Foster collaboration through trust and fairness.
Ensure public accountability.
Build public support by demonstrating integrity
What ethical question is raised in research about potential risks and benefits?
Are the potential risks to participants worth the knowledge gained from the study’s outcomes?
Example: Milgram’s study gained significant insights but at the cost of participant distress.
What is the Nuremberg Code (1947)?
A set of 10 rules for research ethics developed after World War II during the Nuremberg Trials to prevent research atrocities like those conducted by Nazi doctors.
Example: Emphasized voluntary consent and avoiding unnecessary harm to participants.
What is the Declaration of Helsinki (1964)?
A set of ethical guidelines by the World Medical Assembly that expanded on the Nuremberg Code, requiring journal editors to ensure research aligns with ethical principles.
Key Revision: Updated in 2013 to include clearer protections for participants in clinical research.
What were the limitations of the Nuremberg Code and the Declaration of Helsinki?
They focused primarily on medical research and did not explicitly address behavioral research.
They lacked comprehensive guidelines for ethical challenges outside clinical settings.
What was the Belmont Report (1979), and why was it created?
Developed in response to unethical studies like the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, it outlined three key principles for ethical research with human participants:
Beneficence: Maximize benefits, minimize risks.
Respect for Persons (Autonomy): Participants must make informed decisions.
Justice: Ensure fair distribution of research benefits and risks
What was the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, and why was it unethical?
Conducted from 1932 to 1974 on African American men to observe untreated syphilis.
Participants were denied effective treatment (penicillin) even when it became standard care in 1947.
Violated autonomy, beneficence, and justice principles
What are the five principles of the APA Ethics Code?
Beneficence and Nonmaleficence
Fidelity and Responsibility
Integrity
Justice
Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity
What does Beneficence and Nonmaleficence mean in the APA Ethics Code?
Psychologists must strive to benefit those they work with and ensure no harm is done. They safeguard the welfare and rights of human and animal subjects.
Example: Avoiding unnecessary harm in experiments, like in Milgram’s study.
What is the principle of Fidelity and Responsibility?
Psychologists should:
Build trust with their participants.
Uphold professional conduct.
Manage conflicts of interest responsibly.
Example: Consulting with colleagues to avoid potential missuse in a research study.
What does Integrity mean in the APA Ethics Code?
Psychologists promote honesty and truthfulness, avoiding fraud or misrepresentation. Deception is only allowed if necessary, justified, and later addressed (e.g., through debriefing).
Example: In Milgram’s study, deception about the experiment’s purpose caused ethical concerns.
How does the principle of Justice apply to research?
All individuals are entitled to equal benefits from research and fair treatment. Psychologists must avoid bias or incompetence leading to unjust practices.
Example: In the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, researchers unjustly denied treatment to African American participants.
Which guidelines does debriefing follow?
Debriefing is one way that researchers can follow the guidelines in the APA Ethics Code, particularly Principles B (Fidelity
and Responsibility), C (Integrity), and E (Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity).
What does Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity entail?
Psychologists respect privacy, confidentiality, and self-determination. Special protections are required for vulnerable populations (e.g., children, cognitively impaired individuals).
Example: Ensuring informed consent and understanding cultural or role differences.
How do the principles of research address ethical dilemmas in research?
They provide a framework to balance participant welfare and scientific progress.
Help address issues like deception, informed consent, and privacy violations.
What is the risk-benefit ratio in research?
It is the relationship between the risks of study participation (e.g., physical or emotional harm) and the potential benefits (e.g., improved health, societal advancements).
Example: A drug trial may risk side effects but could lead to life-saving treatments.
What are the common risks to participants in behavioral research?
Physical harm: Exposing participants to drugs, extreme temperatures, or loud noises.
Stress and distress: Asking about traumatic events.
Confidentiality and privacy: Discussing sensitive topics like illegal activities or sexual behavior.
What are potential benefits of participation in research?
Direct benefits: Learning a new skill, receiving treatment, or earning a reward.
Societal benefits: Advancing scientific knowledge or improving public health.
Example: A psychological therapy trial might help participants manage anxiety and lead to new treatment protocols.
What is debriefing, and why is it important?
Debriefing occurs after a study to explain its purpose, address deception, and mitigate any harm. It promotes ethical standards like Fidelity and Responsibility, Integrity, and Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity.
Example: Informing participants in a memory experiment that it was actually a study on obedience.
What is an example of balancing risks and benefits in research?
Stem Cell Research for Parkinson’s Disease:
Risks: Tumor formation, immune rejection, surgical complications.
Benefits: Symptom relief and reduced need for medication.
How does the risk-benefit ratio apply to placebo-controlled trials?
In a trial for schizophrenia:
Risks: Placebo group lacks effective treatment, potential worsening symptoms, and increased risk of harm.
Benefits: Identifying effective new treatments.
Why is confidentiality a significant risk in behavioral research?
Breaches of confidentiality can expose participants to social, legal, or emotional harm.
Example: Revealing responses about illegal activity or sensitive personal experiences.
Imagine a study on substance use behaviors. A participant admits to using illegal drugs.
Without confidentiality: If their response is linked to their identity and leaked, they could face legal prosecution or societal judgment.
With confidentiality: The researcher keeps their identity secure, ensuring their information is used only for anonymous statistical analysis.
What is the role of an ethic committee in research?
To review and ensure that the rights and welfare of human research participants are protected.
Examples: Institutional Review Board (IRB), Independent Ethics Committee (IEC), Ethical Review Board (ERB), Research Ethics Board (REB)
What is exempt research?
Exempt research involves studies with minimal or no risk to participants.
Examples:
Evaluating new teaching techniques.
Collecting responses via anonymous surveys.
Observing behavior in public settings.
Key Point: Researchers cannot decide on exemption themselves; the ethic committee must approve the status.
What is minimal risk research?
Research where the risks are no greater than those encountered in daily life or routine tests.
Examples:
Weighing participants or measuring sensory acuity.
Moderate exercise by healthy volunteers.
Research on individual or group behavior.
What is greater-than-minimal risk research?
Research that presents risks beyond those encountered in daily life, requiring thorough review by the ethics committee.
Examples:
Exposing participants to physical or psychological stress.
Collecting private, sensitive information.
Activities that risk a breach of confidentiality or privacy.
Why are ethic committees important in research?
Protect participants from harm.
Ensure informed consent.
Review risk-benefit ratios.
Uphold ethical standards in all study procedures.
What is the difference between minimal risk and greater-than-minimal risk?
Minimal Risk: Risks no greater than daily life (e.g., physiological measurements).
Greater-than-Minimal Risk: Higher risks like stress, privacy invasion, or sensitive data exposure.
What is informed consent in research?
Informed consent ensures participants are provided with all necessary information to make an informed decision about participation, including:
Purpose of the study.
Risks and benefits.
Right to refuse or withdraw at any time.
Why is informed consent important?
It respects participants’ autonomy, ensuring they can voluntarily decide to participate without coercion or misinformation.
What are autonomy issues in informed consent?
Vulnerable Populations: Certain groups, like minors, individuals with cognitive impairments, or psychiatric patients, may need extra protections. For example, a parent or guardian may need to provide consent alongside the participant’s assent.
Coercion: Situations where participants feel pressured to participate, such as requests from authority figures (e.g., a boss or professor) or promises of excessive rewards, undermine true autonomy.
Deception is permissible if:
It does not influence the participant’s decision to participate.
It is necessary to achieve research goals.
Participants are debriefed afterward to explain the deception.
Example: Milgram’s study on obedience used deception about the true nature of the experiment.
What is scientific fraud?
Scientific fraud involves unethical practices that compromise the integrity of research, such as fabricating or falsifying data. These actions threaten the credibility of the scientific method.
Examples:
Fabrication: Completely inventing data that was never collected.
Falsification: Altering or excluding data to make results look better.
Guessing Missing Data: Filling in gaps with fake data to fit expectations.
Suppressing Results: Hiding entire studies because the outcomes didn’t align with the researcher’s goals.
Why is fraud rare and often detected?
Replication: Faked results cannot be reproduced by other researchers.
Peer Review: Fraud can be identified during the review process.
Collaboration: Co-researchers may suspect unethical practices.
What motivates scientific fraud?
Individual reasons: Personal ambition or ethical lapses.
Societal pressures: “Publish or perish” academic culture.
Rewards: Promotions, tenure, grants, or recognition.
What are the key elements of creating an informed consent form?
Form Formatting:
Print in no smaller than 11-point type (avoid “fine print”).
Use language at a 6th- to 8th-grade reading level, free of technical jargon.
Avoid first-person statements like “I understand…”.
Contact Information:
Include phone/email for questions (researcher, faculty advisor, IRB office).
Description of the Study:
Clearly explain the purpose of the research.
Provide the expected duration of participation.
Describe the procedures involved.
What is attitudes?
Attitudes refer to an individual’s feelings, beliefs, or predispositions toward a particular topic or group.
