Research methods part 2

Question 1

What makes a sample representative?

Answer 1

A representative sample reflects the wider population accurately, allowing generalization of results.

Question 2

What are the three principles of participant selection?

Answer 2

The principles are suitability, sample size, and accessibility.

Question 3

Define “suitability” in participant selection.

Answer 3

Suitability ensures participants match characteristics needed for research, defined by inclusion and exclusion criteria, such as demographics, diagnoses, or availability.

Question 4

How is sample size determined?

Answer 4

Through statistical methods like power analysis to ensure the sample is large enough to detect effects but not unnecessarily large to conserve resources.

Question 5

What is power in research, and what is a good power value?

Answer 5

Power is the probability of correctly rejecting a false null hypothesis. A power value of 80% or higher is generally considered valid.

Question 6

What are the two main types of hypotheses in hypothesis testing?

Answer 6

Null Hypothesis (H₀): Assumes no effect or difference between study groups.
Alternative Hypothesis (H₁): Assumes there is an effect or difference between study groups.

Question 7

What does “accessibility” refer to in participant selection?

Answer 7

Accessibility involves the logistical, ethical, and practical methods of recruiting participants, such as sampling procedures and participant agreements.

Question 8

What is the difference between probability and non-probability sampling?

Answer 8

Probability Sampling: Every member of the population has a known chance of being selected. Example: Randomly selecting 100 students from a list of all university students using a lottery system.
Non-Probability Sampling: Participants are chosen based on convenience or other non-random criteria. Example: Surveying students in the library at a specific time because they are readily available.

Question 9

What are common types of probability sampling?

Answer 9

Simple Random Sampling: Equal chance for everyone. Example: Drawing names from a hat.
Systematic Random Sampling: Select every k-th person. Example: Every 10th person on a list.
Cluster Sampling: Randomly select groups, not individuals. Example: Survey all students in 10 randomly chosen schools.
Stratified Sampling: Divide into groups, then randomly sample. Example: Equal males and females selected from the population.

Question 10

What is convenience sampling in non-probability sampling?

Answer 10

Selecting participants based on their availability or ease of access.
Example: A researcher surveys students sitting in a campus cafeteria because they are readily available.

Question 11

Describe quota sampling and how it differs from stratified sampling.

Answer 11

Quota Sampling:
You need 50 males and 50 females for a study. You go to a park and ask any male or female you see until you reach 50 of each.

Stratified Sampling:
You have a list of all males and females in your population. You split them into male and female groups, then randomly select 50 from each group using a lottery or software.

Question 12

What is snowball sampling?

Answer 12

A non-probability method where current participants help recruit more participants, often used for hard-to-reach groups.
Example: If you’re studying underground musicians, you start with one musician who introduces you to others in their network, and the process continues.

Question 13

What are the steps for systematic random sampling?

Answer 13

Create a List: Compile a list of every member in the population.
Example: A list of 1,000 students at a university.
Determine Sampling Interval (k): Divide the population size (N) by the desired sample size (n).
Example: For 1,000 students and a sample of 100,
𝑘
=
10
k=10.
Randomly Select a Starting Point: Pick a random number between 1 and
𝑘
k.
Example: If the starting point is 4, select every 10th person starting from the 4th.
Select Participants: Include individuals at positions 4, 14, 24, 34, and so on.

Question 14

What are common types of data collection techniques?

Answer 14

Interviews: Asking participants directly.
Example: A psychologist interviews clients about their anxiety symptoms.
Questionnaires: Written surveys to gather responses.
Example: Measuring opinions about remote learning through an online form.
Observation: Watching and recording behaviors.
Example: Observing children’s play behavior in a daycare.
Performance Tests: Assessing participants’ abilities or skills.
Example: IQ tests.
Physiological Measures: Measuring biological responses.
Example: Heart rate monitoring during stress experiments.

Question 15

What are the advantages of in-person interviews?

Answer 15

High response rates.
Allows close personal interaction with respondents.

Question 16

What are the four main ways to conduct surveys?

Answer 16

In-person interviews.
By telephone.
Through the mail.
On the internet.

Question 17

What are the main types of interview structures?

Answer 17

Structured: Fixed questions, no deviation.
Example: Asking every participant the same set of predefined questions.
Semi-structured: Mix of predefined and open-ended questions.
Example: Exploring general work satisfaction with room for deeper responses.
Unstructured: Broad, open-ended, informal discussions.
Example: “Tell me about your childhood” in a clinical setting.

Question 18

What is a Likert scale in questionnaires?

Answer 18

A psychometric scale used to measure agreement or frequency on a statement.
Example:

Strongly Disagree (1)
Disagree (2)
Neutral (3)
Agree (4)
Strongly Agree (5)

Question 19

What is social desirability bias in questionnaires?

Answer 19

When participants respond in a way they think is most socially acceptable rather than truthfully.
Example: Underreporting alcohol consumption or overreporting exercise habits.

Question 20

What are performance tests?

Answer 20

A: Standardized measures assessing psychological variables like intelligence or attention.
Example: Administering the Stroop Test to measure cognitive flexibility.

Question 21

What is internal consistency in standardized instruments?

Answer 21

A measure of how well test items assess the same construct.
Example: A personality test using Cronbach’s Alpha to ensure reliability.

Question 22

What are latent traits?

Answer 22

Latent traits are internal characteristics that cannot be directly observed but can be inferred through responses to specific questions or behaviors.
Example: Extroversion is a latent trait measured using questions like, “Do you enjoy being the center of attention?”

Question 23

What is the difference between one-dimensional and multidimensional measurement?

Answer 23

One-dimensional: Measures a single factor and gives one total score.
Example: A depression scale measuring only mood symptoms.

Multidimensional: Measures multiple factors, giving several scores.
Example: The Big Five Personality Inventory measuring traits like openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.

Question 24

What is self-plagiarism?

Answer 24

A: Self-plagiarism is presenting one’s own previously published work as original.

Question 25

What ethical code addresses plagiarism?

Answer 25

A: The APA Ethics Code Standard 8.11 explicitly states that plagiarism violates ethical standards in scholarship.

Question 26

What is Direct Plagiarism?

Answer 26

Direct plagiarism is when you take another person’s work and pass it off as your own without changing anything.

Question 27

What is Self-Plagiarism?

Answer 27

Self-plagiarism is presenting your own previously published work as original.

Question 28

What is Paraphrasing Without Credit?

Answer 28

This occurs when you change the wording of your sources’ information but fail to give credit to the original source.

Question 29

What is Mosaic Plagiarism?

Answer 29

Mosaic plagiarism happens when you partially paraphrase content so that your paper is a mix of your words and your sources’ words.
Example: Using direct phrases from a source, interwoven with your own writing, without quotation marks or proper citation.

Question 30

What is Accidental Plagiarism?

Answer 30

A: Accidental plagiarism is when you forget to cite sources or unintentionally misrepresent information.
Example: Including a statistic from an article but forgetting to include the reference.

Question 31

What is Misattribution?

Answer 31

Misattribution occurs when you attribute information to the wrong source.
Example: Citing a quote from one author but referencing a different article in the citation.

Question 32

What are the four elements of a reference for a scientific article in APA Style?

Answer 32

Author: Who is responsible for the work?
Date: When was it published?
Title: What is the work called?
Source: Where can it be retrieved?
Example: Smith, J. (2020). The study of cognition. Journal of Psychology, 45(2), 123–134. https://doi.org/10.1234/abcd123.

Question 33

What is a DOI, and why is it important in references?

Answer 33

A DOI (Digital Object Identifier) is a unique alphanumeric string that provides a permanent link to a digital object, such as a journal article.

Question 34

How do you reference a scientific article with several authors in APA Style?

Answer 34

A: Use the author-date format and list up to 20 authors.

Question 35

How do you format in-text citations for a scientific article?

Answer 35

Parenthetical citation: (Smith & Lee, 2020).
Narrative citation: Smith and Lee (2020) found that emotional regulation is critical for mental health.

Question 36

What happens if you have doubts about APA referencing?

Answer 36

Use resources like the APA Style Guidelines website or university library guides.

Question 37

What is the difference between using (&) and “and” in APA Style citations?

Answer 37

(&) is used in parenthetical citations.
Example: (Smith & Johnson, 2020).
“and” is used in narrative citations.
Example: Smith and Johnson (2020) stated that…

Question 38

When is it best to use quotation or paraphrasing?

Answer 38

Quotation: Use when:

The wording is memorable or impactful.
You need to preserve the exact phrasing (e.g., definitions).
You’re analyzing the author’s specific choice of words.
Example: “Plagiarism undermines academic integrity” (Smith, 2020, p. 45).
Paraphrasing: Use when:

Summarizing or simplifying the source.
Integrating information into your writing style.
Comparing or synthesizing ideas from multiple sources.
Example: Smith (2020) emphasized that plagiarism damages academic honesty.

Question 39

What are the key elements of a book reference in APA Style?

Answer 39

Author(s): Last name, Initial(s).
Year of publication: In parentheses.
Title: Italicized, capitalize only the first word and proper nouns.
Publisher: Full name of the publisher.
Example: Livingston, J. A. (1994). Rogue primate: An exploration of human domestication. Roberts Rinehart.

Question 40

How do you reference a book with editors instead of authors?

Answer 40

Include the editors’ names followed by “(Eds.)” or “(Ed.)”.

Question 41

How do you format a journal article reference in APA Style?

Answer 41

Author(s): Last name, Initial(s).
Year: In parentheses.
Title: Capitalize only the first word and proper nouns.
Journal name: Italicized and capitalize main words.
Volume (italicized), issue (non-italicized in parentheses), page range.
DOI or URL (if online).
Example: Smith, J., & Brown, T. (2020). The role of creativity in education. Journal of Psychology, 45(2), 123–134. https://doi.org/10.1234/abcd123

Question 42

How do you format a chapter in an edited book in APA Style?

Answer 42

Chapter Author(s): Last name, Initial(s).
Year: In parentheses.
Chapter title: Only the first word and proper nouns capitalized.
Editors: Include “(Eds.)” after the names.
Book title: Italicized.
Page range of the chapter in parentheses.
Publisher name and DOI/URL (if online).
Example: Aron, L., Botella, M., & Lubart, T. (2019). Culinary arts: Talent and their development. In R. F. Subotnik, P. Olszewski-Kubilius, & F. C. Worrell (Eds.), The psychology of high performance: Developing human potential into domain-specific talent (pp. 345–359). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000120-016

Question 43

What is the rule for citing page numbers in APA?

Answer 43

Include the page number only for direct quotations, not paraphrasing.
Example: “Plagiarism undermines creativity” (Smith, 2020, p. 45).

Question 44

How do you cite a webpage in APA Style?

Answer 44

Author or Organization: If no individual author, use the organization.
Date: Use “n.d.” if no date is available.
Title: Italicized.
URL.
Example: World Health Organization. (n.d.). Ensuring a coordinated and effective mental health response in emergencies. https://www.who.int/mental-health-response

Question 45

Q: What are the formatting rules for an APA reference list?

Answer 45

Double-space all entries.
Use a hanging indent for each entry (first line flush left, others indented).
List sources in alphabetical order by the first author’s last name.