History of psychology Flashcards
Explain Zeitgeist
Refers to the spirit or mood of a particular time period that influences popular ideas and beliefs. In psychology, it means that what is considered important or true can change depending on the cultural and intellectual climate of the era
What is science, and why is it important?
Science is the pursuit of knowledge and understanding of the natural and social world using a systematic method based on evidence. It helps drive progress by improving health, technology, and overall well-being
What is Empirical observation?
It means watching and recording things in the real world. Scientists organize what they see, compare it with other observations, and then try to explain what’s happening.
Explain Rationalism and Empiricism
Rationalism: The idea that we gain knowledge through reasoning and thinking. Before we can know something, we need to apply logic and mental processes.
Empiricism: Knowledge comes from what we experience through our senses—what we see, hear, or touch. To know something, we need to observe and experience it.
Explain the two main funtions in scientific theories
Organizing what we see: When scientists observe things in the world, a theory helps them make sense of all the information by grouping similar things together. For example, if you see many types of animals, a theory of evolution helps organize those observations by explaining how they’re related.
Helping with future research: Theories also act like a guide, suggesting what scientists should look for next. If a theory predicts something will happen, scientists can test it and see if the theory holds up.
What is Scientific law?
A scientific law describes a consistent relationship between two or more events, showing how one thing always leads to another. For example, it can explain how smoking always increases the risk of health problems.
Explain the two types of scientific laws and give example
Causal Laws: These laws explain how one event causes another. For example, if you eat too much sugar, it can cause a spike in your blood sugar levels. Causal laws help us understand the reasons behind certain outcomes.
Correlational Laws: These laws show how two events are related but do not imply one causes the other. For instance, there might be a correlation between studying more and getting better grades, but it doesn’t mean studying directly causes higher grades. Correlational laws help identify patterns in data
Who is Karl Popper?
Was a philosopher who argued that for a theory to be scientific, it must be falsifiable, meaning it can be tested and potentially proven wrong. He believed scientists should focus on trying to disprove theories rather than just supporting them
Explain the scientific activity according to Karl Popper
Involves three main steps
Problems: It starts with identifying a problem that guides what observations will be made.
Theories: Scientists propose possible solutions or theories to address the problem.
Criticism: Theories are then tested and criticized to find any faults or errors.
What is falsification according to Karl Popper?
For a theory to be considered scientific, there must be a way to test it and show it could be wrong. If you can imagine an observation or experiment that would prove the theory false, then it is a good scientific theory. If a theory can’t be tested this way, it’s not considered strong or scientific
Describe the SCIENTIFIC THEORY and NON SCIENTIFIC THEORY
Scientific Theory: Makes specific predictions that can be tested. For example, if a scientific theory says “If you heat water to 100 degrees Celsius, it will boil,” you can test it to see if it’s true.
Non-Scientific Theory: This type of theory is not clear and does not make specific predictions that can be tested. For example, saying “Some people have good luck” doesn’t tell you how to test or measure it, so you can’t really prove it right or wrong.
In short, scientific theories can be tested and proven wrong, while non-scientific theories can’t
Who is Thomas Kuhn?
Thomas Kuhn was a thinker who explained that science works in two steps and science is more subjective:
Normal Science: This is when scientists follow common ideas and methods that everyone agrees on.
Revolution: This happens when those common ideas change, and a new way of thinking takes over.
He believed that the ideas scientists share affect how they study and understand things.
Explain paradigms
A paradigm is like a common way of thinking or understanding in a specific field of science. It includes the main ideas and methods that most scientists agree on.
For example, in psychology, a paradigm might be behaviorism, which focuses on observing and studying behavior.
When scientists work within a paradigm, they try to solve problems or answer questions using that shared approach.
If new discoveries show that the old paradigm doesn’t explain things well anymore, a revolution happens, and a new paradigm takes its place.
In short, a paradigm is a shared framework for thinking in science, and it can change when new ideas come along.
Whats the + and - with paradigms?
Advantages (+):
Focus: Paradigms help scientists concentrate on specific problems.
Organization: They provide a clear framework for research.
Disadvantages (-):
Narrowing Perspective: Scientists might ignore or overlook other theories or approaches that could offer valuable insights because they are so accustomed to the dominant paradigm.
Resistance to Change: They may slow down the acceptance of new ideas.
Explain the stage of Scientific Development
Pre-Paradigmatic Stage (Prescientific): This is when there are many different ideas and theories, but no one idea is accepted by everyone. Scientists are unsure about how to study their subject because there’s no clear agreement.
Paradigmatic Stage: Here, one idea becomes the main way everyone thinks about and studies the subject. This is called a paradigm, and scientists focus on solving problems within this framework. They do research that fits with this common understanding.
Revolutionary Stage: Over time, the main idea (paradigm) might not explain new discoveries well. When this happens, scientists may start to question it and look for new ideas. A new paradigm can emerge, which changes how scientists think about and study the subject.
In short, Kuhn says that science starts with many ideas, then settles on one main idea, and eventually may change to a new main idea when new information arises.
What is multi paradigmatic
discipline?
Being multi-paradigmatic allows for a richer understanding of complex issues, as different paradigms can contribute unique perspectives and solutions. It encourages flexibility in thinking and research, acknowledging that no single approach can explain all aspects of human behavior.
Explain Indeterminism
What It Is: This idea says that not everything we do can be predicted.
Key Idea: While our behavior can be influenced by our biology or environment, we also have moments where we can make choices that surprise others.
Example: If someone who usually studies hard decides to skip studying for a day to go out with friends, that choice shows that not everything about their behavior can be predicted based on their past.
Explain Non-determinism
What It Is: This idea says that people have the freedom to make their own choices.
Key Idea: Our actions are not just the result of our background or experiences; we have the power to choose how we act.
Example: If a person grows up in a tough environment but decides to pursue a different path, like going to college, it shows they can choose their own future, regardless of their upbringing.
Explain determinism
Determinism is the idea that all behavior is caused by specific factors. biological and environmental. I explains behavior through the lens of specific causes, showing that our actions are shaped by various factors beyond our immediate control
Explain the 2 components in science and how they can work together
Empirical observation – This is the actual, factual observation of things happening in the real world.
Theory – This is the attempt to explain why those things happen.
Together, these two elements help create scientific knowledge. Observing facts is important, but understanding and explaining those facts is what makes science powerful.
Explain the words REFUTABLE and NON-REFUTABLE
Refutable: A statement or theory is refutable if it can be tested and potentially proven wrong. For example, saying “It will rain tomorrow” is refutable because you can check the weather and see if it actually rains.
Non-refutable: A statement or theory is non-refutable if it cannot be tested or proven wrong. For example, saying “Some people are happy” is non-refutable because it is too vague, and you can’t easily prove it wrong or right.
Explain biological determinism
Biological Determinism: This view states that our behavior is influenced by biological factors like genetics and brain chemistry. For example, certain traits or mental illnesses may be inherited.
Explain environmental Determinism
This perspective emphasizes that behavior is shaped by our environment and experiences, such as upbringing and social influences. For example, a person’s behavior can be affected by their family and community.
Explain Sociocultural Determinism
This view suggests that our behavior is influenced by cultural and societal factors, including customs, beliefs, and social norms. For example, a person’s actions and attitudes may be shaped by the cultural values of the community they belong to
Explain monist vs dualist
In short, monists think only one kind of reality exists (either physical or mental), while dualists believe in both physical and mental realities.
What is nature vs nurture
Inheritance (nature) or by experience (nurture).
Nativist: This viewpoint emphasizes that human attributes, like intelligence or personality, are mostly inherited through genetics.
Empiricist: This view stresses that human attributes develop primarily through experiences and environment.
Explain Animism
This is the belief that everything in nature is alive and has a spirit or soul. Early humans believed that natural objects like trees, rivers, or animals had their own spirits.
Explain Anthropomorphism
Is when people project human traits onto non-human things. For example, imagining a tree as “happy” or a river as “angry” is giving those natural elements human emotions or characteristics.
Explain Physis
Means the basic substance that everything in the universe is made from. Early philosophers had different thoughts about what this substance was, suggesting things like water or fire as the main building blocks of everything
What is cosmologists?
First philosophers
Why did the first philosophers become?
Early philosophers moved from mythological explanations to seeking natural, scientific understandings of the world around them.
What is the theory of perception?
Democritus’ theory of perception is based on his broader concept of atomism, which suggests that everything, including human experience, is composed of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms
Explain Rationalism vs irrationalism
Rationalism relies on reason and logic, while irrationalism emphasizes emotions and unconscious influences on behavior.
Explains how early humans used magic and beliefs
Magic: Early people believed they could control or influence these spirits through specific actions, words, objects, or ceremonies. For example, they thought using the right ritual or tool could make a spirit help them or change an outcome, like bringing rain.
Feeling of Control: By practicing these rituals, people felt like they had some control over their lives and fate, even though the world around them was unpredictable.
What is Sophists?
They believed that truth is relative (It can vary depending on the individual or society)
They argued that since different people experience reality differently, knowledge is often uncertain.
Winning an argument was more important than discovering objective truth.
Why was Socrates not a Sophist?
Socrates believed in universal truths, while Sophists believed truth was relative.
Socrates focused on discovering what is truly right or wrong, unlike Sophists who focused on winning arguments.
He believed knowing right leads to doing right, connecting knowledge and morality.
Used questioning to find truth, while Sophists focused on persuasion.
Explain the Inductive definition socrates used
Starting Point: Begins with specific examples of a concept (e.g., “What are just actions?”).
Identifying Patterns: Looks for similarities among those examples (e.g., all just actions involve fairness).
Defining the Concept: Forms a general definition that captures the essence of the concept (e.g., justice means treating people fairly).
Goal: Arrives at a universal definition that applies to all instances, moving beyond personal opinions.
Explain the main points of The Allegory of the Cave
Prisoners: Chained in a cave, seeing only shadows on the wall.
Shadows as Reality: Belief that shadows are the only reality.
Escape: One prisoner is freed and discovers the real world.
Understanding Truth: Realizes shadows are mere illusions.
Returning: The freed prisoner tries to enlighten others but is met with resistance.
Philosophical Implications: Illustrates the difference between appearances and reality, emphasizing the philosopher’s journey to knowledge.
Explain the Theory of Recollection by Plato
Innate Knowledge: The soul has prior knowledge from previous lives.
Learning as Remembrance: Learning is about recalling what the soul already knows.
Role of Education: Education helps us retrieve our innate knowledge.
Accessing the Forms: Recollection allows us to understand perfect ideas (Forms) like beauty and justice.
Explain The Nature of the Soul by Plato
Components of the soul:
Rational
Seeks truth and knowledge, aims to make wise decisions.
Courageous:
Linked to emotions, willpower, and courage; associated with courage, anger, indignation, and willpower.
Appetitive:
Linked to desires, pleasure, and other physical needs; connected to the physical body and its needs.
Explain platos ideas
Plato’s Theory of Forms suggests that the physical world is just a shadow of a higher reality where perfect ideas exist, and true knowledge is gained by understanding these forms.
What is Physiology
Physiology is the branch of biology that studies the functions and processes of living organisms. It focuses on how different systems in the body work together to maintain life, including processes like breathing, digestion, and the functioning of the nervous system.
Who founded the Lyceum and is considered the first university?
Aristotle (384–322 B.C.)
What two philosophical approaches did Aristotle combine in his teachings?
Rationalism (logic) and empiricism (gathered senses)
According to Aristotle, how do we gain knowledge?
Through the five senses: sight, hearing, taste, touch, and smell.
What was Aristotle’s argument about how we perceive objects?
Aristotle believed that we perceive objects through direct interaction with our senses. When we see or hear something, it’s because the actual object (like an apple) stimulates our senses directly. He disagreed with the idea that objects send tiny copies of themselves to our senses; instead, we perceive the real object itself.
How did Aristotle define “common sense”?
Aristotle defined “common sense” as the mental ability that combines information from all five senses (sight, hearing, taste, touch, and smell) to form a complete and unified understanding of the world around us.
What is Aristotle’s concept of the “final cause”?
Aristotle’s concept of “final cause” refers to the idea that to truly understand something, you must know its purpose or goal—the reason it exists or why it behaves in a certain way.
What are the three types of souls according to Aristotle?
Vegetative Soul (plants)
Sensitive Soul (animals)
Rational Soul (humans)
What philosophical shift occurred after Aristotle’s death?
After Aristotle’s death, the focus shifted to practical questions about how to live and what moral beliefs are important, moving away from complex philosophical inquiries about reality and existence.
