Research methods

Question 1

What is the “Use of Reason” as a way of knowing?

Answer 1

The Use of Reason means relying on logic to arrive at conclusions. You take known facts and use logical steps to reach a new idea. For example:

Premise 1: All humans are mortal.
Premise 2: John is a human.

Conclusion: Therefore, John is mortal.
It’s a method of thinking through ideas to figure things out.

Question 2

What is Empiricism?

Answer 2

Empiricism is the process of learning through direct observation and experience rather than relying on reasoning or authority

Question 3

Explain empirical question

Answer 3

An empirical question is one that can be answered through observation and data collection, such as “Does stress affect the immune system?”

Question 4

What is Confirmation bias?

Answer 4

Confirmation bias is the tendency to focus on information that supports your beliefs while ignoring evidence that contradicts them. (not caring about other information, just one)

Question 5

What is belief perseverance?

Answer 5

Belief perseverance is the tendency to hold on to a belief even when there’s evidence that disproves it.

Question 6

Explain Availability heuristic

Answer 6

when you judge how often something happens based on how easily you can think of examples of it. If something is easy to remember, you might believe it happens more often than it actually does.

Example:

If you recently watched a lot of news about plane crashes, you might start thinking that plane crashes happen all the time, even though they are actually very rare. You believe they happen more often just because they are fresh in your memory.

Question 7

What are determinism and discoverability in science?

Answer 7

Determinism: The belief that events, including behaviors, have causes. In psychology, it means that behaviors have specific reasons or causes.

Discoverability: The idea that using scientific methods, we can discover the causes of events or behaviors.

Question 8

Give an example of determinism

Answer 8

If someone becomes anxious before giving a speech, determinism suggests that there are reasons (like past experiences or personality traits) that cause the anxiety.

Question 9

Give an example of discoverbility

Answer 9

Psychologists can use experiments and observations to discover why certain people experience more anxiety in certain situations.

Question 10

How does science make systematic observations?

Answer 10

1. Precise definitions of the phenomena being studied.
2. Reliable and valid measuring tools to collect data.
3. Accepted research methods that are widely used in the scientific community.
4. Logical conclusions based on the data, fitting them into general theories.

Question 11

How does science produce public knowledge and maintain objectivity?

Answer 11

Public knowledge: Scientific findings are shared so others can verify or replicate them.

Objectivity: Scientists aim to stay unbiased, but in psychology, complete objectivity can be challenging due to the complexity of human behavior.

Question 12

What is Introspection?

Answer 12

A method where participants are asked to perform a task and then give a detailed description of their conscious experiences during the task. It involves reflecting on one’s own thoughts, feelings, and sensations

Question 13

Explain Tentative conclusions

Answer 13

Means Scientific conclusions are open to change. As new research emerges, conclusions may be revised or refined. Science is an ongoing process, and findings are always subject to further investigation.

Question 14

What is empirical questions?

Answer 14

questions that can be investigated by collecting and analyzing data.

Example: “What are the effects of psychological stress on the immune system?” This question can be studied by observing stress levels and measuring immune responses.

Question 15

Explain falsifiable

Answer 15

Meaning a theory can be tested and potentially disproven by data.

Question 16

Explain empiricism

Answer 16

knowledge should come from experience and be gained through systematic observation and experiments. This approach replaced more speculative methods of understanding human behavior, like relying on intuition or authority.

Question 17

Whats the the 4 goals of research in psychology?

Answer 17

The goals of research in psychology are to describe behaviors, predict future actions, explain why behaviors occur, and apply findings to improve people’s lives. Each goal builds on the others to enhance our understanding of human behavior.

Question 18

What is the first goal of research in psychology?

Answer 18

Describe: Observing and noting down what people do or how they behave.
Example: Describing behaviors at a party, like chatting or being shy.

Question 19

What is the second goal of research in psychology?

Answer 19

Predict: Anticipating what might happen in the future based on past observations.
Example: Predicting irritability in someone who hasn’t slept well.

Question 20

What is the third goal of research in psychology?

Answer 20

Explain: Finding out the reasons behind certain behaviors.
Example: Explaining that stress leads to anxiety, affecting exam performance.

Question 21

What is the fourth goal of research in psychology?

Answer 21

Apply: Using research findings to help people in real-life situations.
Example: Using effective methods from research to help reduce anxiety in therapy.

Question 22

What is epistemology?

Answer 22

Study of knowledge

Question 23

What is APA?

Answer 23

American Psychology Association. setting guidelines for research, writing, and ethical practices

Question 24

What is the empirical method?

Answer 24

a systematic approach to conducting research that relies on experimentation and systematic observation rather than theories or speculation.

Question 25

What are key characteristics of the empirical method?

Answer 25

Objective: Minimizes personal biases and focuses on observable phenomena. Data Collection: Uses experiments, surveys, and direct observations. Reliability and Validity: Produces consistent and accurate results. Hypothesis Testing: Involves testing hypotheses through research.

Question 26

Why is the empirical method important in psychology?

Answer 26

It allows psychologists to explore complex human behaviors and mental processes, ensuring findings are based on evidence rather than assumptions.

Question 27

What is the Inductive Method?

Answer 27

The inductive method starts with specific observations and uses them to form general conclusions or theories. Example: Observing that various dogs bark at strangers leads to the conclusion that "All dogs bark at strangers."

Question 28

What is the Deductive Method?

Answer 28

The deductive method begins with general principles and applies them to specific cases, working from the top down. Example: General Principle: "All birds have feathers." Specific Case: "A sparrow is a bird." Conclusion: "Therefore, a sparrow has feathers.

Question 29

What is the Abductive Method?

Answer 29

The abductive method starts with incomplete observations and seeks the best or most likely explanation for them. Involves generating hypotheses or diagnoses based on what is observed. Example: Noticing students failing math tests and hypothesizing reasons like ineffective teaching or lack of study.

Question 30

What is the Hypothetico-Deductive Method?

Answer 30

The hypothetico-deductive method involves forming a hypothesis based on existing theories and testing it through experimentation. Example: Observation: "Some animals become aggressive in certain environments." Hypothesis: "Increased noise levels lead to more aggressive behavior." Prediction: "If noise increases, animals will exhibit more aggression."

Question 31

Explain the steps in "the research process"

Answer 31

Make an observation: Notice something in the natural world that sparks curiosity. Ask a question: Formulate a question based on the observation. Form a hypothesis: Propose a possible explanation (hypothesis) that answers the question. Make a prediction: Predict what will happen if the hypothesis is correct (often in the form of "If... then..."). Do an experiment: Test the prediction by conducting a controlled experiment. Analyze the results: Examine the data to see if the prediction holds true. If the hypothesis is correct, you move forward. If the hypothesis is incorrect, revise it and try again. Report results: Share the findings with others, whether the hypothesis was correct or not.

Question 32

What is a non-experimental study? and what is the 3 different types?

Answer 32

A non-experimental study observes and collects data without manipulating variables. It focuses on relationships or behaviors as they naturally occur 1. Observational studies 2. Survey studies 3. Qualitative studies

Question 33

Explain Observational studies by example

Answer 33

Studying Children's Playground Behavior where the researcher sits and observe from a distance

Question 34

Survey studies

Answer 34

In survey research, the researcher collects data by asking participants a series of questions, typically through a questionnaire or interview. (Quantitative data)

Question 35

What is qualitative studies?

Answer 35

A qualitative study is a research method used to explore and understand people's experiences, behaviors, thoughts, and social contexts in depth. It focuses on gathering non-numerical data, often in the form of words. (qualitative)

Question 36

Explain what the Dependent Variable and Independent Variable is

Answer 36

The dependent variable is the factor that is measured or observed in an experiment to see how it responds to changes in the independent variable. The independent variable is the factor that the researcher manipulates or changes in an experiment to determine its effect on the dependent variable.

Question 37

Give an example of a experimental ressearh

Question 38

Explain correlation vs causation

Answer 38

Correlation: When two things change together (e.g., more ice cream sales and more drownings in summer). Note: Just because they change together doesn't mean one causes the other! Causation: When one thing directly causes another (e.g., studying more leads to better test scores). Note: Causation shows a direct effect.

Question 39

What is an experimental research?

Answer 39

Experimental research is a type of research design where the researcher manipulates one or more variables

Question 40

What is the difference between Experimental methods and Non-experimental methods

Answer 40

Experimental methods involve manipulation of variables and aim to establish causal relationships. Non-experimental methods focus on observation and description of variables as they naturally occur, without manipulation or control. They are better suited for real-world, exploratory research, but cannot determine causality.

Question 41

What 3 types of Theoretical studies is there?

Answer 41

Theoretical Studies: What it is: These studies look at existing ideas and theories without doing new experiments. Example: A study that discusses how "emotional intelligence" can help someone be a better leader. Systematic Reviews: What it is: These studies collect and summarize all the research on a specific topic. Example: A review that looks at all studies about how effective cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is for treating anxiety. Meta-Analysis: What it is: This uses statistics to combine the results of many studies to get a clearer overall picture. Example: An analysis that takes results from different studies to see how exercise affects depression overall.

Question 42

What is the FINER criterias?

Answer 42

Feasible: Definition: Can we realistically conduct this research with the resources we have? Example: If we want to study people's exercise habits, do we have enough time and participants to collect data? Interesting: Definition: Is this question interesting to others? Example: Studying how social media affects mental health could engage many people. Novel: Definition: Does this question explore something new or different? Example: Looking at how a new app can help improve sleep quality adds fresh insights. Ethical: Definition: Is it safe and fair for participants? Example: We need to ensure that people participating in a study about stress can withdraw at any time without harm. Relevant: Definition: Does this question matter in the real world? Example: Researching ways to reduce anxiety is relevant because many people struggle with it.

Question 43

Explain "IMRaD" from the American Psychiatric Association

Answer 43

Its structured as following: Introduction: Reading as much as you can to see the previous findings in the study of interest. Methods Results and Discussion (Conclusion)

Question 44

What is Abstract in an article?

Answer 44

Kind of a summarized of the study, where all the important information is: Background (Introduction) Methods Results Conclusion

Question 45

What are the types of quantitative data, and how do they differ?

Answer 45

Quantitative data can be discrete or continuous. Discrete: Whole, countable values (e.g., number of students). Continuous: Measurable values with possible fractions (e.g., height, temperature).

Question 46

What are the types of qualitative data, and how do they differ?

Answer 46

Qualitative data can be nominal or ordinal. Nominal: Categories without order (e.g., types of pets: dog, cat). Ordinal: Categories with a meaningful order or rank (e.g., satisfaction levels: satisfied, neutral, dissatisfied).

Question 47

What includes in the intruduction in the Article Structure and Content

Question 48

What includes in the methods in the Article Structure and Content

Question 49

What includes in the Results in the Article Structure and Content

Question 50

What includes in the Discussion/conclusion in the Article Structure and Content

Question 51

What includes in the references in the Article Structure and Content

Question 52

What is Boleen's operaters

Question 53

What is a psychological construct?

Question 54

Explain confounding variables vs extraneous variable

Question 55

Explain between-subject and within-subject

Question 56

What should a researcher consider before conducting research?

Answer 56

The most effective approach to answer research questions, achieve objectives, and test hypotheses.

Question 57

Why are research objectives important?

Answer 57

They provide focus and direction, help manage time and resources, and define the research scope.

Question 58

What are general objectives in research?

Answer 58

Broad statements summarizing the overall goal of the research.

Question 59

What are specific objectives in research?

Answer 59

Detailed, actionable parts of the research that address specific components of the research problem.

Question 60

How do general and specific objectives differ?

Answer 60

General objectives outline the main goal broadly, while specific objectives break down the main goal into testable, detailed steps.

Question 61

What is a research design? And what does it include?

Answer 61

The overall strategy chosen to integrate different components of a study in a coherent and logical way. It includes: Participants, materials, design, procedure, and data analysis.

Question 62

What are the two main types of research design?

Answer 62

Quantitative and qualitative research design.

Question 63

What is the objective of quantitative research?

Answer 63

To quantify data and generalize findings from a sample to gain insights into the broader population.

Question 64

What is the objective of qualitative research?

Answer 64

To understand underlying reasons or motivations behind behaviors and experiences.

Question 65

How is data collected in quantitative research?

Answer 65

Using standardized instruments and predefined variables.

Question 66

How is data collected in qualitative research?

Answer 66

Through methods adapted to the situation, with variables that may not be defined in advance.

Question 67

What are the main types of studies in quantitative research?

Answer 67

Descriptive, correlational, and experimental studies.

Question 68

What types of studies are used in quantitative research?

Answer 68

Descriptive (summarizing data), correlational (finding relationships), and experimental (testing cause-and-effect).

Question 69

What is the main goal of descriptive research?

Answer 69

To give a detailed overview of variables without trying to find relationships or causes.

Question 70

What does correlational research aim to do?

Answer 70

It looks for connections between variables but doesn’t change them or prove causation.

Question 71

Why do researchers use experimental research?

Answer 71

To see if changing one factor (IV) directly affects another (DV), showing cause and effect.

Question 72

What is an independent variable (IV)?

Answer 72

The part of an experiment that the researcher changes or controls to observe effects.

Question 73

What is a dependent variable (DV)?

Answer 73

The outcome or response that is measured in the experiment to see the effect of the IV.

Question 74

What are extraneous variables?

Answer 74

Factors not studied but kept constant to prevent them from impacting the outcome.

Question 75

What are confounding variables? A:

Answer 75

Outside factors that might mix up the results, making it unclear if the IV truly affected the DV.

Question 76

What does internal validity mean in an experiment?

Answer 76

It shows that the changes in the DV are likely due to the IV, without influence from outside factors.

Question 77

What happens in a between-subjects design?

Answer 77

Different groups of people are tested under different conditions for comparison.

Question 78

Can you give an example of a between-subjects design?

Answer 78

One group is taught with Method A and another with Method B, and their performances are compared.

Question 79

What is a within-subjects design?

Answer 79

The same people take part in all conditions of the experiment to compare their responses directly.

Question 80

What is the purpose of random assignment?

Answer 80

It ensures that participants have an equal chance to be in any group, which balances differences and reduces bias.

Question 81

What does maximizing independent variance mean?

Answer 81

It’s about making sure the IV varies enough (e.g., using different doses) to see clear effects on the DV.

Question 82

What’s an example of maximizing independent variance?

Answer 82

Testing different levels of exercise (low, medium, high) to see how they impact health.

Question 83

What does minimizing error variance mean? How can you minimize error variance?

Answer 83

Reducing random effects or mistakes in the experiment that could cloud the results. By keeping conditions consistent and using reliable measurement tools.

Question 84

Why do researchers control external variables?

Answer 84

To make sure that only the IV is affecting the DV, leading to clearer and more accurate results.

Question 85

What is an example of a balanced design?

Answer 85

Having equal numbers of participants in each experimental group.

Question 86

What does removing outliers involve?

Answer 86

Identifying and eliminating extreme data points that could skew the results.

Question 87

What is experimental control?

Answer 87

The method of setting up an experiment so that the IV is clearly isolated and tested.

Question 88

What is a quasi-experimental design? And when is quasi-experimental design commonly used?

Answer 88

Research that resembles an experiment but lacks random assignment, often used when true experiments are impractical or unethical. In real-world settings where random assignment isn’t possible, such as educational or social research.

Question 89

Give an example of a quasi-experimental design.

Answer 89

Comparing test scores from students at different schools where only one school implements a new teaching method.

Question 90

What is a single-subject design? And What is an example of a single-subject design? And What is the purpose of a single-subject design?

Answer 90

Its A study focusing on one individual as the unit of analysis, with repeated measures taken over time. And example could be testing a reading intervention on a child by measuring reading speed before, during, and after the intervention. We want to see if a treatment causes change in one specific individual over time.

Question 91

What kind of settings often use quasi-experimental designs?

Answer 91

Educational, healthcare, and social research environments where controlled experiments are impractical.

Question 92

How do quasi-experiments differ from true experiments?

Answer 92

Quasi-experiments do not use random assignment, making them less controlled and potentially more prone to confounding variables.

Question 93

Give an example of a pre-post intervention design

Answer 93

A hospital studying the impact of a new medication system by comparing medication error rates before and after implementation.

Question 94

Why use a single-subject design?

Answer 94

To get detailed, individualized insights into how an intervention impacts one person, which can help identify strong cause-and-effect relationships for that case.

Question 95

What is the intervention phase in a single-subject design?

Answer 95

The phase when the new treatment or intervention is applied and measurements continue to see its effect.

Question 96

What is an ABA design?

Answer 96

A type of single-subject design where data is collected in three phases: baseline (A), intervention (B), and a return to baseline (A) to confirm the effect of the treatment.