History of psychology part 2 unit 8 Flashcards
What was the main goal of Behaviourism?
To create a psychology that is a natural, objective science, studying only observable and measurable phenomena.
Why was the early 20th century significant for Behaviourism?
It was a crisis period for psychology, with Freud’s psychoanalysis and Gestalt psychology breaking away from introspection-based approaches.
Who is considered the founder of Classical Behaviourism?
John B. Watson (1878–1958).
What is Pavlov best known for?
His work on Classical Conditioning, demonstrating how reflexes can be conditioned by association.
What is the difference between unconditioned and conditioned reflexes?
Unconditioned Reflex: An automatic response to a natural stimulus (e.g., salivating at food).
Conditioned Reflex: A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus (e.g., salivating at the sound of a bell).
What is extinction in Pavlov’s theory?
When the conditioned stimulus (e.g., a bell) is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus (e.g., food), the conditioned response gradually disappears.
What was Bechterev’s focus in psychology?
He founded Reflexology, studying the relationship between external influences and observable behavior.
How did Bechterev’s approach differ from Pavlov’s?
Bechterev criticized Pavlov’s method as overly complicated and focused on studying motor reflexes instead of conditioned reflexes.
What did Bechterev study in relation to behavior?
The connection between behaviors like facial expressions and gestures and their physical, biological, and social conditions.
What are spontaneous recovery and disinhibition in Classical Conditioning?
Spontaneous Recovery: A conditioned response (CR) reappears after extinction following a rest period.
Example: A dog salivates to a bell again after a break.
Disinhibition: A new stimulus introduced during extinction causes the CR to return immediately.
Example: A dog salivates to a bell when paired with a sudden light flash.
Key Difference: Spontaneous recovery happens after rest, while disinhibition is triggered by a new stimulus.
What were Bechterev’s key contributions to psychology in Russia?
Established the first psychological laboratories in Russia at Kazan University (1886) and St. Petersburg.
Founded the Psychoneurological Institute in St. Petersburg.
What are Bechterev’s major written works?
Objective Psychology (1913).
General Principles of Human Reflexology (1923).
Who was John B. Watson, and what was his contribution to psychology?
American psychologist and founder of Classical Behaviourism.
Aimed to make psychology an objective science by focusing on observable behaviors rather than introspection.
Major influence: Prediction and control of behavior.
What is Stimulus-Response (S-R) psychology?
Behavior is a direct reaction to stimuli.
A stimulus (S) can be external (environment) or internal (physical state).
A response (R) is any action the organism takes in reaction to the stimulus.
What are Watson’s four types of behavior?
Explicit Learned: Observable and learned (e.g., talking, playing).
Implicit Learned: Hidden but learned (e.g., heart racing at a dentist).
Explicit Unlearned: Observable reflexes (e.g., blinking, sneezing).
Implicit Unlearned: Internal reflexes (e.g., glandular secretions).
What methods did Watson propose for studying behavior?
Observation: Natural or experimental.
Conditioned Reflex Method: Inspired by Pavlov and Bechterev.
Testing: Elicit behaviors without measuring abilities or personality.
Verbal Reports: Treated as observable behavior, not introspection.
What was Watson’s view on instincts and personality?
Humans have reflexes, not instincts (e.g., sucking, crying, breathing).
Personality is shaped by experience, not heredity.
Key Idea: Change experiences to change personality.
What was the Little Albert experiment?
Watson conditioned a child to fear a white rat by associating it with a loud noise.
Demonstrated that emotions like fear can be learned through conditioning.
Raised ethical concerns about research with children.
What shift did Watson bring to psychology?
He moved the focus from studying consciousness to predicting and controlling behavior.
Focused on inherited emotions like fear, anger, and love and their triggers.
Who was William McDougall, and what was his major contribution?
An American psychologist recognized as one of the founders of Social Psychology.
Studied the mind-body relationship and the scientific existence of the soul.
How did McDougall’s approach differ from Behaviorism?
McDougall opposed Behaviorism, arguing for a holistic approach to psychology.
He believed mental events could be studied by observing their effects on behavior.
What did McDougall say about instincts?
Instincts are innate and inherited motivations that drive behavior.
Example: Organisms are born with instincts like fear and curiosity, which guide actions.
What was McDougall’s stance on heredity?
He emphasized the role of heredity in behavior.
Supported eugenics, advocating for selective breeding to improve human traits.
What was McDougall’s belief about the soul?
He believed humans are composed of both a soul and body.
One of psychology’s tasks is to explain the relationship between the two, leading him to study phenomena like telepathy and near-death experiences
What is Neo-Behaviourism, and how did it emerge?
Neo-Behaviourism combines Behaviourism with Logical Positivism (knowledge verified through senses).
Focused on learning processes and observable behavior using scientific rigor.
What are the key features shared by Neo-Behaviourists?
Theories must align with Logical Positivism.
All theoretical terms must be defined operationally (through observable processes).
Animals are used as research subjects to generalize findings to humans.
Learning is a primary mechanism for adapting to environmental changes.
Why do Neo-Behaviourists prefer animals in experiments?
Easier to control variables compared to human studies.
Animal learning and perception processes are considered similar to humans, differing only in degree.
What role does Logical Positivism play in Neo-Behaviourism?
Divides science into:
Empirical: Observable facts and events.
Theoretical: Explaining what is observed.
Encourages theorization without losing objectivity.
What is operationalism in Neo-Behaviourism?
Definition: Defining abstract concepts through the procedures used to measure or observe them.
Example: Instead of describing “anxiety” abstractly, it’s defined as increased heart rate, sweating, or avoidance behaviors observed during tests.
Purpose: Strips theoretical terms of metaphysical meanings, making them measurable and objective.
Who was Edward Chace Tolman, and how did he approach behavior?
A Neo-Behaviourist who introduced Intentional Behaviourism.
He studied molar behavior (purposeful actions) instead of isolated stimulus-response reflexes.
How did Tolman describe molar behavior?
Behavior is goal-directed and influenced by intentions, not just stimulus-response links.
Example: A man driving home or a student filling out an exam sheet.
What are intervening variables in Tolman’s theory?
Definition: Cognitive processes (e.g., beliefs, expectations) that mediate between environmental stimuli and behavior.
Example: A rat navigating a maze uses a “cognitive map” (mental representation) to reach the goal.
What is Tolman’s E-O-R framework?
E: Environmental events (independent variables).
O: Organism’s cognitive processes (intervening variables).
R: Behavior (dependent variable).
Example: A rat forms expectations (O) after exploring a maze (E), which guides its behavior (R).
What were Tolman’s ideas about learning and motivation?
Latent Learning: Learning occurs constantly but may not be shown until motivation exists.
Example: A rat learns the maze layout but only demonstrates it when food is placed as a reward.
Motivation: Influences performance (using learning) but not the learning itself.
What is a cognitive map in Tolman’s theory?
A mental representation of the environment that helps guide behavior.
What is molecular behavior in Tolman’s theory?
Definition: Small, isolated responses to specific stimuli, often studied in simple stimulus-response experiments.
Example: A reflex action, like pulling your hand away from a hot surface, is considered molecular behavior.
Contrast: Tolman focused more on molar behavior (purposeful, goal-directed actions) than molecular behavior.
What are execution, latent learning, and latent extinction in Tolman’s theory?
Execution:
The process of translating learned knowledge into observable behavior.
Example: Knowing how to navigate a maze (learning) and then actually doing it (execution).
Latent Learning:
Learning occurs without immediate visible behavior and is only demonstrated when needed.
Example: A rat explores a maze but only shows it has learned the layout when food is placed as a reward.
Latent Extinction:
During extinction, the organism modifies its expectations when reinforcement is no longer given.
Example: A rat stops expecting food at the end of a maze after multiple unrewarded trials
Who was Clark Leonard Hull, and what was his contribution to psychology?
A Neo-Behaviourist who developed the Hypothetico-Deductive Theory to scientifically explain learning.
Focused on internal psychological conditions (intervening variables) that influence behavior.
What were Hull’s main ideas in learning theory?
Reinforcement: Behavior is driven by the reduction of biological needs (Impulse Reduction Theory).
Example: Eating reduces hunger, reinforcing the act of eating.
Habit Strength: If a behavior reduces an impulse, it strengthens the habit.
Example: Repeated successful foraging strengthens a rat’s habit of exploring the same area.
Reaction Potential: The likelihood of a learned response occurring depends on habit strength and the current need.
What is Hull’s Hypothetico-Deductive Theory?
Review Research: Study existing learning experiments.
Postulate Statements: Summarize findings into general rules.
Deductive Theorems: Derive predictions that can be tested experimentally.
Who was B.F. Skinner, and what was his main focus?
A Neo-Behaviourist who rejected mental processes, focusing instead on observable behaviors and their environmental causes.
Developed Operant Conditioning, emphasizing how consequences shape behavior.
How does Skinner define Operant Conditioning?
Definition: Behavior is shaped by its consequences, either strengthening or weakening it based on the outcome.
Operant Behavior: Actions taken by an organism to influence the environment.
Example: A rat learns to press a lever because it results in receiving food as a reward (positive reinforcement).
What is Skinner’s concept of reinforcement?
Reinforcement: Strengthens behavior.
Positive Reinforcement: Adding something pleasant (e.g., a treat for completing homework).
Negative Reinforcement: Removing something unpleasant (e.g., turning off an annoying alarm by getting up).
Punishment: Weakens behavior but is less effective because it often reinforces the punisher instead.
What is the functional analysis of behavior in Skinner’s theory?
Environmental events influence behavior directly, and all mental processes are considered irrelevant.
Key Idea: To understand behavior, study how environmental factors shape it.
How did Hull’s and Skinner’s approaches differ?
Hull: Focused on internal intervening variables (e.g., habit strength, reaction potential).
Skinner: Ignored internal processes, focusing purely on observable behaviors and their environmental consequences.
