History of psychology part 2 summed up Flashcards
What societal changes in the early 20th century influenced the development of psychology?
Psychology adapted to societal demands, such as compulsory schooling, military selection, and industrial needs, driving the study of individual differences and the measurement of human capabilities.
How did psychology contribute to shaping the school environment?
Psychology developed tools to measure children’s abilities, leading to classification systems that placed students in classrooms based on their academic levels.
What psychological approaches were used to improve learning in schools?
Behaviorist methods, such as rewards and punishments, were implemented to enhance learning and discipline.
What role did psychology play in the military?
It created methods to assess candidates’ physical and mental abilities to select the best individuals for specific military roles.
What are the two opposing views about the origins of individual differences in psychology?
Innatism: Traits and abilities are genetically inherited.
Environmentalism: Traits and abilities are shaped by environmental factors.
Who was Sir Francis Galton, and what was his main area of focus in psychology?
Galton was an English scientist and psychologist who focused on individual differences, particularly the study of intelligence and heredity.
What concept is Sir Francis Galton credited with introducing?
Galton introduced the concept of eugenics, emphasizing the selective breeding of humans to improve hereditary traits.
How did Galton contribute to the study of intelligence?
He pioneered the measurement of intelligence through early psychometric tests and statistical methods.
He considered that everything was measurable.
What statistical technique did Galton develop that is widely used today?
Galton developed “regression to the mean” and contributed to the foundation of correlation analysis.
How did Galton study individual differences?
He used anthropometric measurements, such as height, reaction time, and sensory acuity, to study variations among individuals
What tools or methods did Galton invent for his research?
Galton invented the Galton whistle for auditory testing and introduced the use of questionnaires to collect data on psychological traits
How did Galton’s work influence the field of psychology?
His emphasis on heredity and statistical methods laid the groundwork for modern psychometrics and the study of intelligence.
What controversial aspect is associated with Galton’s work?
Galton’s advocacy for eugenics has been criticized for its ethical implications and misuse in social policies.
Was Galton Darwins cousin?
Yes
What are some of Francis Galton’s major contributions to measurement?
Invented the weather map and introduced terms like high and low pressure and weather fronts.
Demonstrated that fingerprints could uniquely identify individuals, a method now used globally in law enforcement.
Discovered that the human ear loses its ability to perceive high-frequency waves with age.
Conducted a study to determine in which country the most beautiful women were found.
Measured the degree of boredom experienced during scientific conferences.
How did Francis Galton define intelligence?
Galton believed intelligence was based on sensitive acuity and considered it largely inherited. He used the rate of eminence (achievements and recognition) as a measure of high intellectual capacity.
What were Galton’s findings in Hereditary Genius (1869), and what project did he propose from it?
In Hereditary Genius, Galton concluded that the offspring of illustrious (famous, accomplished, or highly respected) individuals are more likely to be illustrious than the general population. Based on this, he proposed Eugenics, a project aimed at improving hereditary traits through selective breeding.
What was the basis of Galton’s Selective Descent project?
The project was based on Darwin’s theory of evolution and emphasized intelligence as a fundamental marker of individual differences.
How was Galton’s Selective Descent project received?
Galton proposed that governments subsidize the project, but it was rejected by all. Even his cousin, Charles Darwin, called him a fool for the idea
What was Galton’s stance in the nature versus nurture debate?
Galton argued that high intelligence was primarily due to hereditary factors but acknowledged that it required a suitable environment for development, as discussed in his book English Men of Science: Their Nature and Nurture (1894).
How did Galton support his belief in innatism?
In Investigations into the Human Faculties and Their Development (1883), Galton supported innatism by studying monozygotic (identical) and dizygotic (non identical) twins, showing the role of heredity in shaping intelligence.
What was the purpose of Galton’s word association test in The Investigations (1888)?
Galton created the first word association test as a tool to study individual differences, hypothesizing a possible link between intelligence (I.Q.) and word associations.
What were the results of Galton’s word association research, and how was the method later used?
Galton was unable to find a direct link between intelligence and word association. However, the method was developed by Carl Jung as a clinical diagnostic tool.
What did Jung theorize about delays in word association tests?
Jung believed delays in responding indicated a block in self-expression, such as having too many possible answers or discomfort with a specific response. He linked this resistance to Freud’s concept of repression.
How did Jung use the word association test in his practice?
Jung used the test as a tool to uncover traumas and complexes in patients. However, as a projective test, it has no reliable diagnostic value if used exclusively.
What were Galton’s contributions to mental imagery and anthropometry?
Galton studied mental imagery, exploring how people experience sensory information without external stimuli. He also established an anthropometric laboratory to measure intelligence and individual differences through physical characteristics.
What statistical concepts did Galton introduce?
Galton introduced correlation, regression, and the median as a measure of central tendency in his works Correlations and Their Measurements and Natural Heredity (1889).
How was Galton’s concept of correlation further developed?
Karl Pearson (1857–1936) expanded Galton’s work by introducing the Pearson correlation coefficient, a formula to measure the strength of relationships between variables.
What was Alfred Binet’s essential contribution to psychology?
Binet made a significant impact in psychometrics and differential psychology by designing tests to predict school performance, focusing on assessing individual abilities.
How did Binet’s work with Simon influence intelligence testing?
Binet and Simon developed early methods for assessing mental abilities, which became the foundation for modern intelligence tests. Their work focused on identifying children who needed additional support in school.
What was Binet’s first field of study in psychology?
Binet initially studied hysteria and the use of hypnosis under Charcot, focusing on psychological phenomena related to suggestion.
What topics did Binet research at the Sorbonne’s physiological psychology lab?
In 1891 Binet conducted studies on memory, childhood fears, creativity, thinking without images, and graphology.
What was the focus of Binet and Henri’s article “Individual Psychology” (1896)?
They argued that intelligence consists of various mental faculties and should be measured through complex mental operations, rather than sensory acuity.
Why did Binet and Henri reject Galton and Cattell’s methods?
They measured intelligence through sensory acuity, while Binet focused on complex mental operations.
Binet emphasized that age influenced the important variables on which individuals differ.
What was the result of the Individual Psychology project?
The project was disappointing, as Stella Sharp from Cornell University showed that there were few intercorrelations between Binet’s and his assistant’s tests.
How did Alfred Binet begin working with Theodore Simon?
In 1899, Simon, who worked with mentally retarded children, asked Binet to assist him with his doctoral thesis on the subject.
What task were Binet and Simon assigned by the French Government in 1903?
They were tasked with studying the problems of mentally retarded children in schools.
What was the goal of Binet and Simon’s work in 1904?
They aimed to create tests that could differentiate intellectually normal children from those who were not, leading to the development of the first intelligence test measuring intelligence directly.
What was the purpose of the 1905 Binet-Simon scale?
It was a reliable tool to distinguish normal children from children with impairments, composed of 30 tests (3 motor development, 27 cognitive abilities) for children aged 2 to 12 years.
What conclusions did Binet and Simon draw from their intelligence testing?
Heredity played an important role in intelligence.
Many individuals functioned below their full capacity, indicating unrealized potential.
What was the original purpose of Binet’s intelligence test?
It was designed to identify schoolchildren who required special attention to improve their education, not as a tool to label or limit them.
What concern did Binet have about the use of his test?
Binet feared the test would be misused to label children and limit their opportunities, instead of being a practical guide to help slow learners.
How did Binet view the later use of his test?
Binet did not agree with its use as a numerical measure of inherited intelligence, as it was intended to identify children needing support, not to measure innate abilities.
What was the focus of the 1908 revision of the Binet-Simon scale?
The revision focused on studying differences in intelligence levels among normal children, determining if a child’s intelligence was above, below, or at the same level as the average for their age.
What is the concept of “intellectual age” introduced in 1911?
Intellectual age refers to the level of the most difficult tests a child could pass, indicating their mental development relative to their chronological age.
What conclusion was drawn from comparing intellectual age to chronological age?
Children whose intellectual age was two or more years below their chronological age were likely to have problems in school and required special attention.
Who introduced the concept of mental age, and how did it relate to IQ?
William Stern introduced the concept of mental age in 1911, derived from Binet-Simon tests, and defined IQ as mental age divided by chronological age.
How did Lewis Terman modify the IQ calculation in 1916?
Terman proposed multiplying IQ by 100 to remove decimals, creating a more manageable measurement unit.
What additional contribution did Terman make to IQ testing?
Terman introduced a classification system to categorize individuals based on their IQ scores.
Who was Charles Spearman, and where did he study psychology?
Charles Spearman was a British psychologist who studied in Germany and received his doctorate in Leipzig.
What theory of intelligence did Spearman formulate in 1904?
Spearman proposed the two-factor theory of intelligence, which suggests that intelligence consists of a general factor (g) and specific factors (s).
What statistical technique did Spearman develop to support his theory?
Spearman developed factor analysis as a key method for his theory, along with Spearman’s ordinal correlation coefficient.
What was Spearman’s role in shaping psychology in Britain?
Spearman founded the ‘London School’ of Psychology, significantly influencing British psychology.
What career did Charles Spearman leave to pursue psychology, and who influenced his work?
At 34, Spearman left his military career to study psychology. He was influenced by Galton’s work and studied under Wundt and Külpe in Germany.
What did Spearman conclude from his studies with schoolchildren?
Spearman concluded that sensory acuity was related to intelligence, linking physical perception with mental ability.
What is Spearman’s Bifactor Theory of intelligence?
Spearman’s Bifactor Theory proposed that any mental activity depends on two distinct factors: a general factor (g) and specific factors (s).
What are the two factors in Spearman’s Two-Factor Theory?
General Factor (G): This is the overall intelligence that influences all mental abilities. It stays the same for a person across different tasks but can vary between people.
Specific Factor (S): These are abilities unique to specific tasks. They can change depending on the type of task and are different for each person.
What statistical technique did Spearman develop to support his theory of a general factor?
Spearman developed factor analysis as an essential tool to complement his theory of the general factor (g) of intelligence.
What is Spearman’s ordinal correlation coefficient used for?
It measures the relationship between two variables by comparing their ranks, rather than their absolute values.
What are two of Spearman’s most important publications?
The Nature of Intelligence and the Principles of Cognition (1923).
The Abilities of Man (1927).
What is psychoanalysis?
Psychoanalysis is a theory of personality and a therapeutic approach that emphasizes the role of the unconscious mind, childhood experiences, and emotional conflicts in shaping behavior.
Who laid the groundwork for psychoanalysis?
Sigmund Freud developed psychoanalysis, drawing from earlier influences such as Charcot’s work on hysteria and hypnosis.
What are some central concepts in psychoanalysis?
Repression: Blocking uncomfortable thoughts or desires from consciousness.
Defense mechanisms: Strategies the ego uses to manage anxiety and conflict.
Dream analysis: Interpreting dreams to access the unconscious.
What are the three components of Freud’s structural model of the mind?
Id: Instinctual drives and desires (pleasure principle).
Ego: Rational part of the mind balancing the id and reality.
Superego: Moral conscience and societal norms.
What techniques are used in psychoanalysis?
Free association: Encouraging patients to speak freely to uncover unconscious thoughts.
Dream interpretation: Analyzing dreams for hidden meanings.
Transference: Exploring how patients project feelings about others onto the therapist.
What was Leibniz’s contribution to the psychoanalytic background?
Leibniz proposed that levels of consciousness range from clear perception (apperception) to subtle, unaware experiences called petit perceptions.
How did Goethe influence Freud’s psychoanalytic theory?
Goethe described human existence as a constant conflict between emotions and tendencies, an idea that influenced Freud.
What did Schopenhauer believe about human behavior?
Schopenhauer argued that humans are driven by irrational desires and instincts, introducing concepts such as sublimation, repression, and resistance.
What key idea did Herbart contribute to psychoanalysis?
Herbart described a threshold above which ideas are conscious and below which they are unconscious, and he was the first to use the term repression.
What was Hegel’s contribution to psychoanalytic thought?
Hegel introduced the dialectic process, explaining the resolution of conflicting forces.
How did Nietzsche’s ideas relate to psychoanalysis?
Nietzsche described the conflict between the irrational (Dionysian) and rational (Apollonian) tendencies, similar to Freud’s id and superego.
What analogy did Fechner use for the mind?
Fechner compared the mind to an iceberg, with consciousness as the visible tip and the unconscious as the larger, hidden part.
What are Von Hartmann’s three types of unconscious?
Natural unconscious: Governs natural phenomena.
Physiological unconscious: Governs bodily processes.
Psychological unconscious: The source of behavior.
What did Brentano emphasize about human thought?
Brentano highlighted the importance of motivational factors in shaping thoughts and the distinction between objective and subjective reality.
How did Darwin influence psychoanalysis?
Darwin argued that humans, like animals, are driven by instincts such as sexuality and aggression, rather than purely by reason.
What was Breuer’s key contribution to psychoanalysis?
Breuer introduced the talking cure while working on the case of Anna O., showing that verbalizing repressed thoughts could alleviate symptoms.
What was the significance of Breuer’s treatment of Anna O. in the development of psychoanalysis?
Breuer used hypnosis to trace Anna O.’s hysterical symptoms (e.g., paralysis, speech issues) to their emotional origins, such as her tearful squinting caused by caring for her dying father. When the origins were identified, the symptoms disappeared, highlighting how repressed emotions manifest as physical symptoms.
What is the cathartic method, and what did Anna O. call it?
The cathartic method, named by Breuer, involves relieving symptoms by bringing pathogenic ideas into conscious expression. Anna O. referred to it as the “talking cure.”
What are transference and countertransference, as observed in Anna O.’s case?
Transference occurred when Anna O. began seeing Breuer as her father. Countertransference happened when Breuer developed emotional feelings toward Anna O. during her treatment.
What did Jean-Martin Charcot believe about hysteria, and how did it influence Freud?
Charcot believed hysteria was a real disease caused by the dissociation of ideas and could affect both men and women, challenging the historical view that it was solely a uterine disturbance in women.
What was the significance of Freud’s paper “On Male Hysteria” (1886)?
Freud’s paper argued for a connection between sexual factors and hysteria in men, but it was poorly received at the time for being considered too radical.
What did Freud learn about post-hypnotic suggestion from Liébault and Bernheim?
Post-hypnotic suggestion is the idea that a thought implanted during hypnosis can influence a person’s behavior without their conscious awareness.
What is post-hypnotic amnesia, as learned by Freud?
Post-hypnotic amnesia occurs when a person forgets what happened during hypnosis, but these memories can return if the person is sufficiently motivated to recall them.
What societal factors influenced Freud’s early work in Vienna?
Freud worked amidst anti-Semitism, therapeutic nihilism (avoiding medical interventions), and a Victorian mentality that denied the animalistic side of human nature and idealized women as innocent beings.
What were the key pre-psychoanalytic aspects introduced in Studies on Hysteria (1895)?
The existence of unconscious motives that are repressed.
These motives often have a sexual origin.
The foundation of psychoanalysis as a therapeutic method was established with the publication of Studies on Hysteria.
Why was Freud’s psychoanalysis controversial among academic psychologists?
Academic psychologists, like Wundt, focused on the science of consciousness, while Freud’s psychoanalysis emphasized the unconscious as central to understanding human behavior.
Which fields supported psychoanalysis more than academic psychology?
Psychoanalysis received more support from clinical psychology and psychiatry rather than from traditional academic psychology.
What did Freud study in Ernest Bruecke’s physiological laboratory (1876–1882)?
Freud worked on nervous diseases, focusing on the physiological basis of neurological conditions.
How did Freud initially perceive cocaine’s effects?
Freud believed cocaine relieved depression, cured indigestion, and increased energy and productivity without negative side effects. He even gave it to friends, family, and patients.
How did Freud’s cocaine advocacy affect his reputation?
Freud’s enthusiastic promotion of cocaine, including its fatal use by his friend Ernst von Fleischl-Marxow, made the medical community skeptical of his later ideas.
How did Freud develop his psychoanalytic theories?
Freud’s psychoanalysis was based on a series of publications informed by self-analysis and the analysis of his patients.
What did Freud mean by “the royal road to the unconscious”?
Freud described dreams as the symbolic expression of repressed desires and unconscious realities that are not accessible to consciousness.
What are the stages in Freud’s process of dream elaboration?
Latent content: Hidden, unconscious desires.
Dream elaboration: Transformation of these desires into symbolic forms.
Manifest content: The dream as remembered by the individual. (The specific elements of the dream that we can recall consciously)
According to Freud, where do the repressed desires in dreams originate?
Freud believed these desires often originate in childhood experiences.
What is Freud’s Oedipus Complex?
The Oedipus Complex suggests that male children develop a desire for their mothers and feel jealousy toward their fathers. This creates a conflict, causing the child to repress these desires and feelings of hostility toward the father.
What are the key themes in Freud’s Three Essays on Sexual Theory?.
Sexual aberrations
Infantile sexuality (egocentric and narcissistic, with a latency period ending at puberty).
Pubertal transformations
What are libido and sublimation in Freud’s theory?
Libido is the mental energy from the sexual instinct, part of the life instinct (EROS). Sublimation is the redirection of sexual energy into socially acceptable or creative activities.
What are Freud’s three levels of consciousness?
Conscious: What we are aware of at any given moment.
Preconscious: Things we are not currently aware of but can easily access.
Unconscious: Thoughts and feelings actively repressed and hidden from awareness.
What are the three parts of Freud’s model of personality, and what do they do?
ID: The instinctive and unconscious part of the mind. It works on the pleasure principle, meaning it wants immediate satisfaction of desires, like hunger or aggression, without thinking about reality or consequences.
EGO: The rational part of the mind. It develops early in life and acts as the problem-solver, balancing the desires of the ID with the real world’s rules (reality principle). It helps us adapt to situations and reduces stress by managing instincts.
SUPEREGO: The moral part of the mind. It’s like your inner voice, shaped by society and culture, telling you what’s right and wrong. It helps guide behavior based on values and rules you’ve learned.
What are Freud’s stages of psychosexual development?
Oral (first year): Focus on the mouth as the erogenous zone.
Anal (second year): Focus on controlling bowel and bladder movements.
Phallic (3–5 years): Focus on the genitals; includes the Oedipus Complex.
Dormant/Latency (6 years to puberty): Sexual feelings are dormant.
Genital (puberty onward): Focus on mature sexual relationships.
What are the key characteristics of Freud’s psychosexual stages?
Each stage focuses on a specific erogenous zone (e.g., mouth or genitals).
The first three stages are self-focused (autoerotic).
Too much or too little satisfaction in a stage can lead to psychological problems later.
What are Freud’s three types of anxiety?
Objective anxiety: Caused by real, external threats to safety or well-being.
Neurotic anxiety: The Ego struggles to control the Id’s irrational desires.
Moral anxiety: Guilt or self-punishment when violating the Superego’s internalized values.
What are defense mechanisms, and how do they work?
Defense mechanisms are unconscious strategies the Ego uses to cope with stress and anxiety by changing how we see reality, helping reduce emotional discomfort
What are the key features of repression, displacement, and sublimation?
Repression: Fundamental mechanism where repressed ideas resurface in dreams, humor, or physical symptoms.
Displacement: Anxiety is redirected to a less threatening object or goal.
Sublimation: Redirects sexual desires into socially acceptable outlets like art, religion, or sports; considered the basis of civilization.
What are the common criticisms of Freud’s psychoanalysis?
Method of data collection: Relied heavily on his own observations.
Dogmatism: Rejected ideas that conflicted with his own.
Overemphasis on sex: Viewed sex as the primary human motivator.
Cost and effectiveness: Psychoanalysis was lengthy, expensive, and had limited results.
Lack of falsifiability: Considered unscientific because it couldn’t be tested or disproven
Why did Jung and Freud end their professional and personal relationship?
The relationship ended due to theoretical differences, but in 1914, Jung honored their past collaboration by publishing Psychological Types, despite the loss of friendship.
What personality types and functions did Jung propose in Psychological Types?
Personality Types:
Introversion: Focused inward, on thoughts and feelings.
Extroversion: Focused outward, on external stimuli.
Psychological Functions:
Thought, Feeling, Intuition, and Sensation.
How does Jung define the Ego and the Self?
Jung sees the Ego as the center of an individual’s conscious mind, responsible for self-awareness. The Self, however, goes beyond the Ego, representing the complete integration of both conscious and unconscious aspects of the psyche, guiding individuals toward wholeness and personal growth.
What are Jung’s key archetypes, and what do they represent?
Self: Represents the union of opposites and the human need for transcendence.
Persona: The tendency to present only certain aspects of one’s personality to the outside world.
What are the main criticisms of Jung’s work?
Advocated mysticism and religion, seen as unscientific.
Archetypes were metaphysical and unverifiable.
His theories were often inconsistent and contradictory.
Applied outdated Lamarckian inheritance concepts.
What are the main criticisms of Jung’s work?
Advocated mysticism and religion, seen as unscientific.
Archetypes were metaphysical and unverifiable.
His theories were often inconsistent and contradictory.
Applied outdated Lamarckian inheritance concepts.
What key developments marked the early 20th century in psychology?
A shift toward a natural, objective science focusing on observable entities.
Freud’s psychoanalysis and Gestalt psychology broke from traditional empiricism and introspection.
J. B. Watson founded classical behaviorism, emphasizing observable behavior.
Russian objective psychology studied only directly measurable phenomena.
How did Pavlov believe psychology should be studied?
Pavlov argued that psychology should use physiological concepts and techniques to study how organisms respond to the environment through conditioned and unconditioned reflexes.
What is a conditioned reflex, according to Pavlov?
A conditioned reflex is a learned response. It happens when something (an object or event) gets linked to a natural trigger, like food causing salivation. Over time, with repetition, the new object causes the same response as the natural trigger. Organisms adjust their reflexes based on experiences.
What happens during the extinction phase of conditioning?
If a conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus (US), the conditioned response (CR) will gradually diminish and eventually disappear.
What are two phenomena observed during Pavlov’s extinction phase?
Spontaneous recovery: The CR reappears after a rest period, even though it was thought to be extinct.
Disinhibition: If a new stimulus is introduced with the CS, it immediately triggers the CR again.
Who was John B. Watson, and what were his key influences?
John B. Watson, the founder of behaviorism, was influenced by Wundt and James and established the American Behaviorist School.
What was John B. Watson’s objective for psychology?
A stimulus (S) is something that happens in the environment or inside the body, and a response (R) is how the organism reacts to it.
What are the four types of behavior described by Watson?
Explicit learned: Talking, writing, playing.
Implicit learned: Increased heartbeat when seeing a dentist.
Explicit unlearned: Blinking, sneezing.
Implicit unlearned: Glandular secretions, circulatory changes. (automatic, involuntary bodily processes that are not learned and happen without conscious awareness)
What are the four methods Watson proposed for studying behavior?
Observation: Natural or experimentally controlled.
Conditioned reflex method: Based on Pavlov and Bechterev’s work.
Testing: Focused on behavior examples, not ability or personality.
Verbal reports: Treated as overt behavior, not a tool to study consciousness.
What was Watson’s view on instincts and behavior?
Watson believed instincts do not exist in humans, only basic reflexes like sneezing, sucking, and crying.
He emphasized that experience, not heredity, shapes personality; changing experiences changes behavior.
Psychology should focus on observable and measurable behavior.
He conducted controversial experiments, such as the Little Albert study, raising ethical concerns.
What did Watson believe about emotions, and what are their key aspects?
Watson believed the emotions of fear, anger, and love are inherited.
The three key aspects of emotions are:
Stimuli that trigger the emotion.
Internal reactions within the body.
External reactions, like behavior or facial expressions.
What is Neo-behaviorism, and what philosophy influenced it?
Neo-behaviorism combines Behaviorism with Logical Positivism, emphasizing that knowledge comes from experience verified through the senses.
What are common features of Neo-behaviorism?
Use of animals as research subjects.
Focus on the study of learning.
Explanation of behavioral complexity using variables like hypotheses, expectations, beliefs, and cognitive maps (except for Skinner).
When did Neo-behaviorism become dominant in psychology?
From 1930 onward, Neo-behaviorism became the leading school of thought in scientific psychology.
Explain Logical Positivism?
Logical Positivism dealt with the problem of studying things we can’t see, like gravity or atoms, by allowing scientists to create theories while still being objective.
Emperical and theoretichal
How does Logical Positivism divide science?
Empirical: Focuses on observable phenomena and occurrences.
Theoretical: Explains the observations through models and theories.
What is an operational definition in operationalism?
An operational definition explains an idea by saying how you’ll measure or observe it. For example:
Instead of just saying someone is “intelligent,” you could measure it by their score on a test.
Instead of just saying someone is “stressed,” you could measure their heart rate or ask how often they feel worried.
It’s a way to turn big ideas into something you can clearly study or test.
What are the core beliefs of Neo-behaviorism?
Theories must adhere to logical positivism.
Theoretical terms should be defined operationally.
Animals are ideal for research because variables are easier to control, and findings can often be generalized to humans.
Learning is the primary way organisms adapt to environmental changes.
What was Skinner’s view on mental events?
Skinner thought mental events were just names for processes and not worth studying. He believed consciousness doesn’t exist as a separate, non-physical thing.
What are Skinner’s two types of behavior, and how does operant conditioning work?
Responsive behavior: Automatic reactions to known triggers (like a reflex). (Watsons idea)
Operant behavior: Actions that change the environment to get a result, influenced by what happens after (rewards or consequences).
How is reinforcement determined?
Reinforcement is something that makes a behavior happen more often. You can tell if something is a reinforcement by checking if it causes the behavior to increase. For example:
If giving a dog a treat makes it sit more often, the treat is a reinforcement.
It’s identified by watching how it changes the behavior – if the behavior happens more, then it’s working as reinforcement.
How do reinforcement and punishment differ in their effects on behavior?
Reinforcement builds behavior, but punishment doesn’t effectively stop it. It just makes the punisher feel in control
Name the 3 major components in human nature according to Maslow.
We can divide human nature into 3 major components:
* The mind (our intellect)
* The body (our biological makeup)
* The spirit (our emotional make up)
What is third-force psychology, and what did it criticize?
Third-force psychology, led by Abraham Maslow in the 1960s, criticized behaviorism and psychoanalysis for dehumanizing humans. Behaviorism, in particular, was seen as treating humans like robots or animals, ignoring what makes them unique.
What did third-force psychology argue was missing from psychoanalysis?
It criticized psychoanalysis for focusing only on emotionally disturbed individuals and ignoring how to help healthy people reach their full potential.
What are the key beliefs of third-force psychology about human behavior and science?
Free will: Humans are free to choose their own existence.
Subjective reality: Behavior is shaped by personal perception, not stimuli, genetics, or past experiences.
Science limitations: Traditional science cannot fully study or understand human nature; a new human science is needed.
What sets humanistic psychology apart from other approaches?
Humanistic psychology focuses on what makes humans unique compared to other species. It views humans not just as biological organisms shaped by experience, but as symbolic beings capable of giving their lives meaning and direction.
What are some key principles of humanistic psychology?
Focus on humans, not animals, as subjects of study.
Subjective reality guides behavior.
Emphasis on studying individuals over groups.
Research should aim to enrich human experience and solve human problems.
What is phenomenology?
Phenomenology is a methodology that focuses on experience as it occurs, without breaking it into smaller parts or reducing it to components.
What are the roots of existentialism?
Existentialism began with Socrates, Augustine, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, and Dostoevsky, focusing on human existence, including feeling, choice, and individuality.
What are the key characteristics of Romanticism?
Romanticism emphasizes:
Nature’s beauty.
Emotion over reason and senses over intellect.
Self-reliance and exploration of human moods and potential
What is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
Maslow proposed that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy:
Lower needs (e.g., hunger, thirst) are more basic and shared with animals.
Higher needs (e.g., safety, love, self-actualization) are uniquely human.
Needs must be satisfied step by step, starting with lower needs before addressing higher ones.
What is self-actualization according to Maslow?
Self-actualization is reaching one’s full potential, including:
Deep self-knowledge and understanding of the world.
Acceptance of oneself and the surrounding world.
Expressing one’s true nature as a drive toward unity.
Achieving integration and synergy within oneself.
What are the key concepts of client-centered therapy? (Roger’s Theory of Personality)
Actualizing tendency: The drive to live a fulfilling life and reach one’s potential.
Organismic valuing process: Following inner feelings to pursue experiences aligned with personal growth and avoiding those that are not.
Living an authentic life: Being motivated by true inner feelings, not by societal expectations or imposed values.
What are the three key conditions for a growth-promoting climate in client-centered therapy?
Genuineness: Being real and authentic (congruence).
Unconditional positive regard: Accepting and valuing a person for who they truly are.
Empathic understanding: Actively listening with sensitivity and understanding.
What shaped cognitive psychology’s dominance?
Influenced by Wundt, Gestalt, and others, but rejected by behaviorism in the USA.
Mentalistic research in 20th century flourished in Europe, with key schools like the Soviet and Geneva Schools.
What is Vygotsky’s theory on the social origin of intelligence?
Vygotsky believed that social behavior shapes consciousness, and higher functions like thinking and language emerge from interactions with adults and more skilled peers.
What were Vygotsky’s main contributions to psychology?
Emphasized objective methods over introspection.
Conducted cross-cultural studies to show how social factors influence consciousness.
Made major contributions to child development, linking cognitive growth to social interaction.
What is the focus of Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory?
It emphasizes how culture—values, beliefs, customs, and skills—is transmitted to the next generation through social interaction and cooperative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society.
What is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)?
The ZPD is the range of tasks a child cannot complete alone but can achieve with guidance from a more skilled individual. It highlights the importance of social learning in development.
What was Jean Piaget’s main disciplinary project?
Piaget’s main project, the General Theory of Knowledge, showed that logical thinking comes from actions, not language, and that development happens as children adjust their behavior to fit the world around them
What are Piaget’s processes of cognitive adaptation?
Assimilation: The child adjusts how they see the world to fit what they already know.
Accommodation: The child changes their understanding to match new experience
What are Jean Piaget’s stages of cognitive development?
Sensorimotor (Birth–2 years): Infants “think” through actions, solving problems by exploring (e.g., pulling levers, finding hidden toys).
Preoperational (2–7 years): Use of symbols and language emerges; thinking lacks logic.
Concrete Operational (7–11 years): Logical thinking develops, and children understand concepts like conservation and classification of objects.
Formal Operational (11+ years): Abstract, systematic, and hypothetical reasoning becomes possible.
How do Piaget and Vygotsky’s theories on learning differ and overlap?
Piaget: Focused on individual learning through psychological constructivism and independent exploration. Believed in universal stages of development.
Vygotsky: Emphasized social constructivism, with learning occurring through group interaction, scaffolding, and the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).
Shared: Both valued children’s active role in learning and the importance of exploration and discovery in developing understanding
What are the main methods used in cognitive psychology?
Mind as an object of study: Combines cognitive approaches with methodological behaviorism.
Rejection of introspection: Avoids relying on consciousness as not all mental mechanisms are accessible.
Behaviorist methods: Initially adopted behaviorist approaches like studying learning with associated pairs.
Analysis of execution times: Measures the time taken to perform tasks.
Computational simulation: Tests psychological models using computer programs.
