PSYC317 VocabD Flashcards
1
Q
data-driven process
A
a process that is influenced by the stimulus material
2
Q
decay theory
A
proposal that information is spontaneously lost over time, even when there is no interference from other material
3
Q
decision aid
A
a tool for helping people make better decisions
4
Q
decision event
A
making a single decision, rather than a sequence of decisions, in a changing situation
5
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decision frame
A
decision maker’s conception of the decision-making situation
6
Q
declarative knowledge
A
knowledge about faucal information
7
Q
deep structure
A
the underlying meaning of a sentence
8
Q
default knowledge
A
knowledge about the most likely caules for the attributes of a schema
9
Q
defining feature
A
a feature that is necessary to be a member of that category
10
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descriptive model
A
a model that derives what people actually do
11
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detection paradigm
A
a procedure in which observers have to specify which of two possible target patterns is present in a display
12
Q
direct memory test
A
a test that asks people to recall or recognize past events
13
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detection paradigm
A
a procedure in which observers have to specify which of two possible target patterns is present in a display
14
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direct memory test
A
a test that ask people to recall or recognize past events
15
Q
disjunctive rule
A
a rule that uses the logical relation or to relate stimulus attributes, such as small or square/
16
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distinctive feature
A
a feature present in one pattern but absent in another, aiding one’s discrimination of the two patterns
17
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distinctive item
A
an item different in appearance or meaning from other items.
18
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domain-specific knowledge
A
knowledge about a specific subject, such as chess or physics.
19
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dual-coding theory
A
a theory that memory is improved when items can be represented by both verbal and visual memory codes.
20
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duplex gamble
A
a gamble in which the probability of winning is assigned independently of the probability of losing
21
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elimination by aspects
A
a strategy that evaluates one attribute at a time and rejects those alternatives whose attribute values fail to satisfy a minimum criterion
22
Q
embodied cognition
A
a theoretical framework in which perception and action have a central role in cognition
23
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encode
A
to create a visual or verbal code for a test item so it can be compared with the memory codes of items stored in short-term memory
24
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encoding specificity principle
A
a theory that states that the effectiveness of a retrieval cue depends on how well it relates to the initial encoding of an item
25
enduring disposition
an automatic influence where people direct their attention
26
episodic memory
memory of specific events, including when and where they occurred
27
error recovery heuristic
a strategy for correcting comprehension errors
28
event-related potential (ERP)
a diagnostic technique that uses electrodes placed on the scalp to measure the duration of brain waves during mental tasks.
29
exchange error
an error in which two linguistic units are substituted for each other during sentence production
30
excitatory connection
a positive association between concepts that belong together, as when a vertical line provides support for the possibility that a letter is K
31
exemplar model
proposes that patterns are categorized by comparing their similarity to category examples.
32
exhaustive search
a search that continues until the test item is compared with all items in the memory set
33
expected value
the average value, as determined by combining the value of events with their probability of occurrence
34
explicit memory
memory evaluated by direct memory test
35
exploration strategy
a strategy for determining how to use a preventative form.
36
fact-oriented acquisition
encoding material in a manner that emphasizes factual knowledge without emphasizing its application
37
family resemblance
a measure of how frequently the attributes of a category member are shared by other members of the category
38
feature comparison model
a model proposing that items are categorized by matching the item's features to category features.
39
feature theory
a theory of pattern recognition that describes patterns in terms of their parts, or features
40
filter model
the proposition that bottleneck occurs at the pattern recognition stage and that attention determines what information reaches the pattern recognition stage.
41
flashbulb memory
a memory of an important even that caused an emotional reaction
42
four-card selection problem
a reasoning task that requires deciding which of four cards should be turned over to evaluate a conditional rule.
43
functional fixedness
the tendency to use an object in a typical way
44
functional magnetic resource imaging (MRI)
a diagnostic technique that uses magnetic fields and computerized images to locate mental operations in the brain.
45
general strategy
a strategy for producing preventative forms
46
generative
the capability to produce many different messages by combining symbols in different ways
47
geons
different three dimensional shapes that combine to form three dimensional patterns
48
global coherence
integration of major ideals that occur throughout a text
49
goal-derived category
a category whose members are selected to satisfy a specified goal
50
grammar
a set of rules for producing correct sentences in language.
51
hallucination
an imagined event or image believed to be real
52
heuristic
a strategy that is often, but not always, helpful in solving problems
53
hierarchical network model
a model proposing that items are categorized by using the hierarchical relations specified in a semantic network.
54
hierarchically organized
an organizing strategy in which larger categories are partitioned into smaller categories
55
high-constraint sentence
a sentence that produces a high expectation for a particular word
56
human information processing
the psychological approach that attempts to identify what occurs during the various stages (attention, perception, short-term memory) of processing information.
57
ideal
an attribute value that relates to the goal of a goal derived category
58
imagery potential
ease with which a concept can be imaged
59
imaging
creating visual images to make material easier to remember.
60
implicit memory
memory evaluated by indirect memory tests
61
imprecise elaboration
provision or generation of additional material unrelated to remembered material
62
inadvertent plagiarism
unintentionally copying someone else's ideas
63
incidental learning
learning that occurs when we do not make a conscious effort to learn
64
indirect memory test
a test that does not explicitly ask about past events but is influenced by memory of past events
65
inducing-structure problem
a problem that requires finding a pattern among a fixed set of relations
66
inference
the use of reasoning to establish relations in a text when the relations are not directly stated
67
inhibitory connection
a negative association between concepts that do not belong together, as when the presence of a vertical line provides negative evidence that a letter is a C
68
insight
the sudden discovery of a solution following unsuccessful attempts to solve a problem
69
interactive activation model
a theory that proposes that both feature knowledge and word knowledge combine to provide information about the identity of letters in a word
70
interstimulus interval
the amount of time between the end of a stimulus and the beginning of another stimulus.
71
keyword
a concrete word that sounds like an abstract word so that it can be substituted for the abstract word in an interactive image
72
keyword method
a mnemonic strategy using keywords to improve paired associates learning
73
knowledge acquisition
storage of information in long-term memory
74
language
a collection of symbols and rules for combining symbols, which can express an infinite variety of messages
75
late-selection model
proposal that the bottleneck occurs when information is selected for memory
76
levels of processing
a theory that proposes that "deeper" (semantic) levels of processing enhance memory
77
lexical alteration
substituting a word with similar meaning for one of the words in a sentence
78
lexical decision task
a task that requires people to decide whether a string of letters is a word.
79
limited-capacity perceptual channel
the pattern recognition stage of Broadbent's model, which protected by the filter (attention) from becoming overloaded with too much perceptual information.
80
links
the format for representing relations in semantic network
81
local coherence
integration of ideas within an immediate context in a text
82
logical rule
a rule based on logical relations, such as conjunctive, disjunctive, conditional, and bi-conditional rules.
83
long-term memory (LTM)
memory that has no capacity limits and lasts from minutes to an entire lifetime.
84
loss aversion
reaction to losses is more intense than reactions to corresponding gains.
85
low-constraint sentence
a sentence that produces and expectation for a broader range of words
86
maintenance rehearsal
rehearsal that keeps information active in shirt-term memory
87
means-end analysis
a strategy that can be used to solve transformation problems by eliminating differences between the initial and goal states
88
measure of sufficiency
a demonstration that the instructions in a computer program are capable of solving a problem
89
memory code
the format (physical, phonemic, semantic) of information encoded into memory
90
memory set
a set of items in short-term memory that can be compared against a test item to determine if the test item is stored there
91
memory span
the number of correct items that people can immediately recall from a sequence of items
92
memory-retrieval explanation
the proposal that people solve reasoning problems about familiar situations by retrieving specific examples from their memory
93
mental effort
the amount of mental capacity required to perform a task
94
metacognition
the selection of strategies for processing information
95
mnemonic technique
a strategy that improves memory
96
modal
knowledge is represented as sensory experiences
97
momentary intention
a conscious decision to allocate attention to certain task or aspects of the environment
98
mood-dependent memory
memory that is improved when people are tested under conditions that re-create their mood when they learned the material
99
morpheme
the smallest unit of meaning in a language
100
morpheme exchange
an error in which two morphemes are substituted for each other during sentence production
101
multimodal code
an integration of memory codes such as combining visual and verbal codes
102
multimode theory
a theory that proposes that people's intentions and the demands of the task determine the information-processing stage at which information is selected
103
naturalistic study
a study of the tip-of the-tongue state in which people record these event as they occur outside the laboratory
104
nearest-neighbor
a classification strategy that selects the category containing an item most similar to the classified item
105
neural network model
a theory in which concepts (nodes) are linked to other concepts through excitatory and inhibitory connections
106
noncompensatory model
a strategy that rejects alternatives that have negative attributes without considering their positive attributes
107
noncued recall
Recall that occurs without hints or cues provided by the experimenter
108
normative model
a model that describes what people should do
109
obligation schema
knowledge that taking an action (such as paying a pension) is required if a prerequisite (such as retirement) is fulfilled.
110
obstacle
an event that delays or prevents the attainment of a goal
111
operator
an action that is selected to solve problems
112
orthographic distinctiveness
lowercase words that have an unusual shape
113
parallel distributed processing (PDP)
when information is simultaneously collected from different sources and combined to reach a decision
114
parallel processing
carrying out more than one operation at time, such as looking at an art exhibit and making conversation
115
parallel representation
representation of knowledge in which more than one item at a time can be processed
116
paraphrase
using different words to express the same ideas in a sentence
117
partial-report procedure
a task in which observers are cued to report only certain items in a display of items
118
pattern recognition
the stage of perception during which a stimulus is identified
119
perceptual confusion
a measure of the frequency with which two patterns are mistakenly identified as each other
120
permission schema
knowledge that taking an action (such as entering a country ) requires fulfilling a prerequisite ( such as being inoculated)
121
phoneme
any of the basic sounds of a language that are combined to form speech.
122
phoneme exchange
an error in which two phonemes are substituted for each other during sentence production
123
phonemic coding
a memory code that emphasizes the pronunciation of the stimulus
124
phonological loop
a component of Bradley's working memory model that maintains and manipulates acoustic information
125
phrase-structure grammar
a set of rules for partitioning a sentence into its grammatical units
126
plan
a temporally ordered sequence of operations for carrying out some task
127
plot
the sequence of events related to achieving goals in a narrative
128
positron-emission tomography (PET)
a diagnostic technique that uses radioactive tracers to study brain activity by measuring the amount of blood flow in different parts of the brain
129
pragmatic reasoning schemata
organized knowledge structures used to evaluate practical situations such as seeking permission or fulfilling an obligation
130
precise elaboration
provision or generation of additional material closely related to remembered material
131
preventative form
creating an object before determining its use
132
primacy effect
the better recall of words at the beginning of a list
133
primary associates
words that are strongly associated with each other, as typically measured by asking people to provide associations to words.
134
primary distinctiveness
an item distinct from other items in the immediate context
135
priming
facilitation in the detection or recognition of a stimulus by using prior information
136
prior probability
the probability that an event will occur before obtaining additional evidence regarding its occurrence
137
proactive interference
forgetting that occurs because of interference from material encountered before learning
138
problem isomorphs
problems that have different story contents but identical solutions
139
problem space
the set of choices evaluated at each step in solving a problem as determined by the problem solver
140
problem-oriented acquisition
encoding material in a manner that is helpful for its later use in solving problems
141
procedural knowledge
knowledge that relates actions to goals
142
procedural memory
memory for actions, skills, and operations
143
processing distinctiveness
creation of a memory code that makes that memory distinct from other memories
144
production rule
a conditional rule that specifies the prerequisite condition for carrying out an action
145
proposition
a meaningful idea that typically consists of several words
146
propositional theory
a theory that all knowledge, including spatial knowledge, can be expressed in semantic-based propositions
147
prototype
an item that typifies the members in a category and is used to represent the category
148
prototype rule
a classification strategy that selects the category whose prototype is the most similar to the classified item.
149
readability formula
a formula that uses variable such as word frequency and sentence length to predict the readability of text
150
readability
the number of recalled propositions divided by reading time
151
reality monitoring
discriminating between actual and imagined events
152
recency effect
the better recall of words at the end of a list
153
recognition memory
deciding whether an item had preciously occurred in a specified context
154
recognition=primed decision (RPD)
a decision that is quickly made following recognition of a situation
155
rehearsal
repeating verbal information to keep it active in short-term memory or to transfer it into long-term memory
156
reinstatement search
the search of long term memory to place words in short-term memory where they can be used to integrate a text
157
relational information
information specifying how concepts are related
158
release from proactive interference
reducing proactive interference by having information be dissimilar from earlier material
159
representational transfer
use of the same format (such as a matrix) in solving two problems
160
representative
the extent to which an event is typical of a larger class of events
161
resolution
the outcome of events in the plot
162
retrieval fluency
the ease with witch an item can be recalled
163
retrieval strategy
a strategy for recalling information from long-term memory
164
risk dimension
a component of a gamble such as the probability of winning or the amount of a loss
165
rote learning
learning by repetition rather than through understanding
166
rule learning
a concept identification task in which people are told the relevant attributes (such as small, square) but have to discover the logical rule
167
satisficing search
a strategy that follows the conjunctive model and therefore selects the first alternative that satisfies the minimum criterion for each attribute
168
scan component
the attention component of Sperling's model that determines what is recognized in the visual information store
169
scan
to sequentially compare a test item with items in short-term memory to determine if there's a match
170
schema
a general knowledge structure that provides a framework for organizing clusters of knowledge
171
script
knowledge about what occurs during routine activities
172
search space
the set of choices at each step in solving the problem as determined by the problem
173
secondary distinctiveness
an item distinct from items sorted in long-term memory
174
selection stage
the stage that follows pattern recognition and determines which information a person will try to remember.
175
selectivity
the selective aspects of attention we pay attention to some aspects of our environment and ignore other aspects
176
self-generation
generation of items by participants in an experiment, rather than the provision of these items by the experimenter
177
self-terminating search
a search that stops as soon as the test item is successfully matched to an item in the memory set
178
semantic alteration
changing the order of words in a sentence to change the meaning of the sentence
179
semantic code
a memory code based on the meaning of the stimulus
180
semantic dementia
progressive deterioration of knowledge about words and objects
181
semantic memory
memory of general knowledge not associated with a particular context
182
sensory store
the part of memory that hold unanalyzed sensory information for a fraction of a second, providing an opportunity for additional analysis following the physical termination of stimulus
183
sequential representation
representation of knowledge in which only one item at a time can be processed
184
serial position effect
the ability to recall words at the beginning and end of a list better than words in the middle of the list
185
serial processing
carrying out one operation at a time, such as pronouncing one word at a time
186
series extrapolation
a problem that requires finding a pattern among a sequence of items to continue the sequence in the same pattern
187
setting
the time and place in which narrative events occur
188
shadowing
an experimental method that requires people to repeat the attended message out loud
189
short-term memory (STM)
Memory that has limited capacity and that lasts only approximately 20 to 30 seconds in the absence of attending to its content
190
simulation program
a computer program that attempts to reproduce the operations used by people to carry out various tasks
191
situation model
integration of prior knowledge and text information to construct an understanding of the situation described in a text
192
slip of the tongue
a speech error
193
slope
a measure of how much response time changes for each unit of change along the x-axis (memory-set size)
194
spatial knowledge
knowledge of spatial relations that may be stored as images
195
spontaneous retrieval
a retrieval that occurs without making a conscious effort to recall information
196
spreading activation
a theoretical construct proposing that activation spread from a concept in a sematic network to activate related concepts
197
stereotype
an attribute value believed to be represented of social categories
198
stimulus-response (S-R)
the approach that emphasizes the association between a stimulus and a response, without identifying the mental operations that produced the response.
199
stroop effect
the finding that it takes longer to name the color of think a work is printed in when the word is the name of a competing color (for example, the word red printed in blue ink)
200
structural coding
a memory code that emphasized the physical structure of the stimulus
201
structural theory
a theory that specifies how the features of a pattern are joined to other features of the pattern
202
structured
the organization imposed on a language by its grammatical rules
203
subgoal
a goal that solves part of the problem
204
subjective expected utility
a variation of expected value that uses utilities and subjective probabilities instead of values and probabilities
205
subjective probability
an estimated probability as determined by the decision maker
206
subordinate category
a smaller category at the bottom of a hierarchy, such a lamp table, jigsaw, and pickup truck
207
subvocalizing
silently speaking to oneself
208
superordinate category
a large category at the top of a hierarchy, such as furniture, tools, and vehicles.
209
suppress
eliminating inappropriate meaning in a sentence
210
surface structure
the structure of a spoken sentence
211
table of connections
a table that links differences between problem states with operators for eliminating those differences
212
tachistoscope
a box that presents visual stimuli at a specified duration and level of illumination
213
template
an unanalyzed pattern that is matched against alternative patterns by using the degrees of overlap as a measure of similarity
214
theme
the main goals of characters in narrative
215
threshold
the minimal amount of activation required to become consciously aw3are of a stimulus
216
tip of the tongue (TOT)
a retrieval state in which a person feels he or she knows the information but cannot immediately retrieve it to approximate the behavior of neural networks in the brain
217
top-down processing
the flow of information from LTM toward the sensory store
218
transformational grammar
a set of rules for transforming a sentence into a closely related sentence
219
typicality
a measure of how well a category member represents that category
220
typicality effect
the finding that the more typical members of a category are classified more quickly than the less typical category members
221
uncertainty
lacking knowledge about which events will occur
222
utility
subjective value as determined by the decision maker
223
Venn Diagram
a diagram that shows the set relations (such as overlap) among categories
224
verbal knowledge
knowledge expressed in language
225
verbal protocol
a record of verbalized thought processes
226
visual buffer
a component of Kosslyn's model in which a generated visual image is maintained in short-term memory
227
visual information store (VIS)
a sensory store that maintains visual information for approximately one-quarter of a second
228
visual scanning
a shift of attention across a visual display or image
229
visuospatial sketchpad
a component of Baddely's working memory model that maintains and manipulates visual/spatial information
230
Wernicke's aphasia
a language disorder attributed to damage in the temporal lobe of the brain
231
whole-report procedure
a task that requires observers to report everything they see in a display of items.
232
word exchange
an error in which two words are substituted for each other during sentence production
233
word superiority effect
the finding that accuracy in recognizing a letter is higher when the letter is in a word than when it appears alone or is in a no word
234
work forward
selecting relevant information to solve problem in the order that it should be used in the solution
235
working memory capacity
the amount of information that can be kept active in working memory
236
working memory
the use of short-term memory as a temporary store of information needed to accomplish a particular task.
237
absolute judgment task
identifying stimuli that vary along a single, sensory continuum.
238
acoustic code
a memory code based on the sound of the stimulus
239
acoustic confusion
an error that sounds like the correct answer
240
activation rule
a rule that determines how inhibitory and excitatory connections combine to determine the total activation of a concept
241
additive-difference model
a strategy that compares two alternatives by adding the difference in their values for each attribute
242
algorithm
a set of rules that will solve a problem if correctly followed.
243
allocation of capacity
when limited amount of capacity is distributed to various task.
244
amodal
knowledge that is abstracted from sensory experiences
245
anagram
a problem that requires rearranging a string of letters to form a word.
246
analogical transfer
use of the same solution in solving two problems.
247
analogy problem
a four term problem that requires finding the answer that completes the relation: A is to B as C is to D.
248
Analogy
solving a problem by using a solution to a related problem.
249
arousal
a physiological state that influences the distribution of mentally capacity to various tasks.
250
arrangement problem
a problem that requires rearranging its parts to satisfy a specified criterion
251
artificial intelligence
the study of how to produce computer programs that can perform intellectually demanding tasks.
252
association value
the number of verbal associations generated for a concept
253
attention window
the attended part of the visual buffer in kosslyn's model
254
attenuation
a decrease in the perceived loudness of an unattended message.
255
attribute learning
a concept identification task in which people are told the logical rule (such as conjunctive) but have to discover the relevant attributes.
256
auditory information store
In Sperling's model this store maintains verbal information in short-term memory through rehearsal.
257
auditory-memory
memory about our personal experiences
258
automatic processing
performing mental operations that require very little mental effort.
259
availability heuristic
estimating probability by the ease with which examples can be recalled.
260
average distance rule
a classification strategy that selects the category containing items having the greatest average similarity to the classified item.
261
basic-level category
an intermediate category in the middle of hierarchy, such as table, saw, truck.
262
Baye's theorem
a normative procedure for revising a probability by combing a prior probability with evidence.
263
bizarre image
a fantastic or unusual image
264
bottleneck theory
a theory that attempts to explain how people select information when some information processing stage become overloaded with too much information.
265
Broca's aphasia
a language disorder attributed to damage in the frontal lobe of the brain.
266
capacity theory
a theory that proposes that we have a limited amount of mental effort to distribute across tasks, so there are limitations on the number of tasks we can perform at the same time.
267
caricature
an exaggeration of distinctive features to make a pattern more distinctive
268
category-size
the finding that members of smaller categories are classified more quickly than members of larger categories
269
causal relation
an event that results in the occurrence of another event.
270
central executive
a component of Baddeley's working memory model that manages the use of working memory.
271
cerebral blood flow
measurement of blood flow to localized where cognitive operations occur in the brain.
272
characteristic feature
a feature that is usually present in members of that category, but is not necessary.
273
chunks
a cluster of items that has been stored as a unit
274
clustering
percentage of occasions in which a word is followed by its primary associate during the free recall of words.
275
coding
semantic elaboration of information to make it easier to remember
276
cognitive interview
the use of cognitively based retrieval techniques to improve recall
277
cognitive neuroscience
the study of the relation between cognitive processes and brain activities
278
cognitive psychology
the study of the mental operations that support people's acquisition and use of knowledge
279
cognitive science
the interdisciplinary attempt to study cognition through such fields as psychology, philosophy, arti8ficial intelligence, neuroscience, linguistics, and anthropology.
280
compensatory model,
a strategy that allows positive attributes to compensate for negative ones.
281
concentration
investing mental effort in one or more task.
282
concept identification
a task that requires deciding whether an item is an example of a concept, where concepts are typically defined by logical rules.
283
conceptually driven process
a process that is influenced by a person's strategies
284
concrete-abstract dimension
extent to which a concept can be represented by a picture.
285
conjunctive model
a strategy that evaluates one alternative at a time and rejects it if the value of one of its attributes fails to satisfy a minimum criterion.
286
conjunctive rule
a rule that uses the logical relation and to relate stimulus attributes, such as small and square.
287
contextual effect
the influence of the surrounding context on the recognition of patterns.
288
continuous dimension
an attribute that can take on any value along a dimension
289
control process
a strategy that determines how information is processed
290
creativity
creating a novel and useful product or solution
291
cued recall
recall that occurs with hints or cures, such as providing t5he questions asked during the judgment phase of a task.
