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Practical 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What is a hydrostatic skeleton

A

A skeleton formed by a fluid-filled compartment in the body (the coelom)

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2
Q

How does a hydrostatic skeleton function?

A

By contracting muscles in organised wats around the pressurised water, animals can change shape

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3
Q

What provides the pressure to the coelom

A

The coelom is held under pressure by the elastic cutcile

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4
Q

In which plane do Nematodes body flex during locomotion?

A

Nematodes body flexes in the dorso-ventral plane, the longitudinal muscles are responsible

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5
Q

What process allows nematodes to restore their body back into a straight shape after flexing?

A

An external cuticle with pressure inside, allows the nematode to snap back whenever the longitudinal muscle is contracted

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6
Q

In which direction do the waves of motion move across an earthworm?

A

Waves of contraction move from the front to back

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7
Q

What are the two internal structures in earthworms that enable them to move via peristalsis

A

Circular and longitudinal muscle contraction.

Segmentation allows greater control of these muscles contractions, compared to nemaodes

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8
Q

What is needed to achieve peristaltic locomotion?

A

Friction

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9
Q

What do earthworms have to increase friction for peristaltic locomotion?

A

Earthworms have cilia, which increase the worms surface area and friction

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10
Q

How do leeches swim?

A

Leeches swim by thrashing

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11
Q

Leeches don’t have septa partitioning their coelom, how does elongation and contraction occur in leeches?

A

Peristalsis, the motion of alternating longitudinal and circular muscles

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12
Q

How are the podia of tube feet extended, retracted, and moved?

A

Podia of tube feet are extended and moved by hydraulic pressure in the water-vascular system, they are retracted via ampullary action

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13
Q

Muscular hydrostats

A

Animals make use of muscle and connective tissue itself as an incompressible medium that serves as a skeleton upon which muscles act

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14
Q

How does the mantle refill in squid?

A

After the squid has released large amounts of water, the muscles expand (electric rebound) allowing water to flow into the mantle, muscular readia movement creates a negative pressure, sucking in surrounding water

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15
Q

The three levers in the body

A 
First-class lever - fulcrum in the middle 
Second-class lever - the load is in the middle
Third-class lever - The effort is in the middle
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16
Q

What happens when you increase the effort arm of a lever?

A

Increasing the effort arm decreases its speed and increases the power for a longer effort arm

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17
Q

What happens when you increase the length of the load arm?

A

increasing the length of the load arm increases its speed and decreases it’s power

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18
Q

Where are the muscle insertion points on animals with powerful limbs?

A

Animals that require powerful limbs which exert large amounts of force have muscle insertion points close to joints and the limbs bones are generally short

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19
Q

Why do large animals not have exoskeletons?

A

Exoskeletons are heavy.

Having very large ones would limit the size as animals would be too heavy to move

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20
Q

Why do large animals generally have endoskeletons?

A

Endoskeletons form internal frames, able to support greater body weights against gravity
Endoskeleton grows along with the rest of the body, doesn’t need to be replaced as the animal grows

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21
Q

Why do the largest animals live in water?

A

Largest animals live in water as their body is supported by water

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22
Q

How can max body size be limited by the amount of body support?

A

If the body support can only handle a certain amount of weight, then a mutation resulting in a larger body size could limit the animals maximum body size

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23
Q

Why do we not see similar limbs for locomotion between water vertebrates and terrestrial vertebrates?

A

Water vertebrates do not need limbs to act as pillars to hold their body off the ground

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24
Q

What do aquatic vertebrates use their appendages for?

A

Use their appendages as control surfaces to manipulate water.
Allows them to direct water to generate lift and drag

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25
What results from the pectoral fin being placed closer to the gills?
The fins are usually flatter and the fish has increased maneuverability but reduced speed
26
What results from the pectoral fins being placed away from the gills?
The fish has increased speed but reduced manoeuverability
27
What is the vertebrate used for in aquatic vertebrates?
Used to maintain body and muscle shape as well as support the movement of these vertebrates
28
Where is the pectoral girdle in aquatic vertebrates?
It is attached to the skull. | Allowing it to change movement and position when in water
29
How does the pectoral girdle being attached to the skull prevent fish from leaving water?
If the fish moved out of the water, it would struggle to move around due to its head being inflexibly stuck to its body
30
Why are trout fibre blocks the shape they are?
The shape is to make sure that muscles equally share the load and excerpt the same force to make sure they all tire equally
31
We know that lobbed finns didn't originally evolve for use on land, what were they most likely used for?
Most likely used for life on the sea floor
32
Is the diversity of tetrapod limbs analogous or homologous?
Homologous | Tetrapods have similar bones however they may not perform the same function
33
Scapula
The fan shape with a ridge of bone running down the dorsal surface (located in the arm)
34
Humerus
The ball joint at the proximal end and a radial notch at the distal end, which accommodates the radius when the forearm is flexed (arm)
35
Ulna
The cylindrical socket at the proximal end where it articulates with the humerus and no obvious articulation at the other end (arm)
36
Radius
Having flat articulations on each end, a flat side to the shaft at the proximal end where it slides over the ulna in pronation and supination (arm)
37
Femur
The ball joint at the proximal end and a large ridged articulating surface for the tibia, there is no equivalent to the radial notch of the humerus (leg)
38
Tibia
The large head and well-developed fossa on the lateral surface of the shaft (leg)
39
Fibula
Its slender cylindrical form and tooth-like projection on the lateral surface where it articulates with the ankle bones (leg)
40
In which organism did tetrapod limbs originate?
Lung fish (Osteichthyes)
41
What does each tetrapod limb contain?
Each possesses a proximal component (humerus or femur), a median component of two elements (ulna and radius, tibia and fibula), and a distal component
42
What are the negatives to having limbs stuck out to the sides? (Early amphibians and reptiles)
Required great deals of strength in chest muscles and pectoral girdle Not much support
43
How does bring the legs under the body improve on the legs on the outsides?
Improves the efficiency of locomotion by making a longer stride possible A lot more support Energy required to support is reduced
44
For what animals is the ability to rotate the wrist important?
For species that use hands for grasping and manipulating objects
45
What animals have lost the ability to rotate their ulna and radius?
Horses and pigs have lost the ability to rotate their ulna and radius, which provides more support for these animals and less likely for muscles to twist
46
The speed and strength of a limb is a compromise between ...?
The weight of the animal and the function required
47
The power of a muscle of a given mass depends on ...?
The distance of its insertion from the articulation
48
What are the consequences of a muscle insertion far from articulation?
Provides a great deal of power but moves the distal point of the limb through a smaller arc
49
What are the consequences of a muscle insertion close to articulation?
Provides less power but moves the distal end through a large arc providing a greater stride length and a greater speed
50
What does increasing the length of the distal elements cause?
It reduces the distal muscle mass and concentrates it proximally
51
What does a distally lengthened limb (horse) provide instead of a proximally lengthened limb (elephant)?
Increases stride length but reduces inertia of the limb
52
Plantigrade
Animals that walk with their weight spread over the whole palm or sole of their manus and pes (hands and feet)
53
Digitigrade
Animals that walk with their weight-bearing on the pads of their phalanges (toes/fingers)
54
Unguligrade
Animals that walk with their weight-bearing on the ends of their nails/claws which are often thickened to become hooves
55
In order to increase stride length and speed, many mammals ....?
Increased the ability to flex the vertebral column with sagittal flexion and extension
56
How does spinal flexion affect stride length and speed?
A stretching and compressing spine allows the animal to have a larger stride and travel at faster speeds
57
Which bones prevents the vertebrae from becoming dislocated during spinal flexion?
Hips, scapula and clavicle
58
Cursorial
Animals specialized for running (e.g., horse)
59
What are the details of the proximal components (humerus and femur) of the cursorial ?
Humerus and femur relatively short and the distal limb segments
60
Are muslce scares close or far from joints in Cursorials?
Long bones, straight and slender with muscle scars being close to the joints
61
What happened to teh lateral digits in cursorial animals?
Laternal digits are reduced or lost
62
What are the charactesitics of the scapula in Cursorials?
Scapula is long and narrow, position is relatively vertical. | Scapula runs perpendicular to the thorax, allows for a larger stride for cursorials.
63
Charactersitics of the Clavicle in Cursorials?
Clavicle very small or is lost
64
Why do carnivores not have hooves?
Carnivores don't have hooves because claws allow for grasping and digging into prey so they don't escape. The extra padding that comes with paws also allows for a softer landing
65
Why are large animals adapted for running (horses) whilst small animals (mice) are not?
Large animals cannot hide from predators. Rely on running as main survivial tactic As opposed to mice that can hide from predators
66
Fossorial
Animals with limbs adapted for digging (wombat)
67
Characteristics of the proximal elements in fossorial?
Proximal elements short and robust with large projections and areas for muscle attachment Shortenitng the bones, increasing mechanical advantage, leading to high force and lower speeds Legs robust for regular terrestrail locomotion
68
Why are muscle attachments far from joints in Fossorial animals?
The muscles away from the joint increases the mechanical advantage Less effort is required for force to exert Allows for powerful digging capabilities
69
Why do fossorial animals have broad feet?
Larger surface area to allow for more 'spade' like digging
70
Graviportal
Animals with limbs adapted for supporting the weight of an extremely large body size (e.g., elephants)
71
Why do graviportal animals rely on bones for primary support rather than muscles?
Muscles require energy and the amount of energy they would need to consume in order to support their size would be inefficient and almost impossible to obtain
72
Arboreal
Animals adapted for climbing
73
Why are the arm bones in arboreal longer than their leg bones?
To accommodate more muscles for climbing, and increase the mechanical advantage
74
Bipedal
Adapted for walking on their hind legs
75
Why are the hind legs more robust that the forelimbs in bipedal animals?
The hind limbs must support the entire weight of the animal. | The forelimbs are generally modified for other functions that ground-based locomotion
76
Flying limb modifications
The forelimbs are elongated to support wings
77
Aquatic animals limbs
Manus/pes are highly modified as hydrofoils or paddles, or lost
78
How is propulsion achieved by aquatic animals
Main propulsion may be through paddling or lift from limbs, or through body flexion with a tail fluke
79
What is the structure and use of a paddle?
A paddle is a fused carpal, metacarpals, and digits of traditional terrestrial bones. Paddles allows for locomotion within water
80
What indicates terrestrial origins in aquatic mammals' bones?
The pelvic bones are vestigial
81
How do dolphins differ from fish in their spinal flexion?
Fish use a lateral flexion motion of the spine. Dolphins use a dorsoventral flexion of the spine, similar to that of a horse. Compress then end of their spine to lift the tail fluke and then push down

BIO2242 (33 decks)

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