OVERVIEW OF THE HUMAN BODY Flashcards
Greek word meaning “cut up” (ana = up, tomy = process of cutting)• Greek word meaning “cut up” (ana = up, tomy = process of cutting)
• Study of internal and external structures of body and their relationships to each
other.
• It is the science of body structures and the relationships among them.
• “Form”
Anatomy
macroscopic, can be seen by the eye; can be studied without microscope.
Gross Anatomy
is the study of the different regions of the body such as the head and
neck.
Regional Anatomy
–study of the specific systems of the body such as the reproductive
system and digestive system.
Systemic Anatomy
study of the landmarks of the body surface of the different visceral
organs
Surface Anatomy
cell and molecule level, needs microscope, cannot be seen by the
naked eye
Microscopic Anatomy
– study of cells
Cytology
study of tissues
Histology
study of prenatal development; the first eight
weeks of development after fertilization of human being.
Embryological Anatomy or Embryology
study of human growth and development from fertilized egg to mature adult to death.
Developmental Anatomy
study of the structures of the body using x–rays and
other noninvasive imaging techniques.
Radiographic Anatomy or Radiology
structural changes (macroscopic to microscopic) associated with
disease.
Pathological Anatomy
Comes from the Greek word for the “study of nature” (physio= nature; logy= study of)
Study of how the structure of these organism perform their functions
• It is the science of body functions—how the body parts work.
• “Functions”
Physiology
- The study of the functions of living organs
- Cornerstone of human physiology
Cell Physiology
- Study of the functions of specific organs
. Special physiology
- Includes all aspects of the functions of specific organ systems
Systemic physiology
- Study of the effects of diseases on organs or system functions
- Study of the functional changes associated with disease and aging
Pathophysiology
• The study of the form and function of the human body and their characteristics and the
functional changes happening due to disease and aging.
Human Anatomy and Physiology with Pathophysiology
Structural Organization
1.Chemical level –atoms & molecules,
compounds
2.Cellular level
3.Tissue level
4.Organ level
5.Organ system level
6.Organism level
◦Simplest level, the body is composed of atoms (indivisible)
◦The basic and smallest unit of all matter. (Eg. Oxygen atom)
Atoms
◦Combination of two or more atoms.
Molecules
◦A molecule containing atoms of more than one element. (eg. Water (H2O),
Carbon Dioxide (CO2), Carbohydrates, Proteins and Lipids
Compounds
◦Smallest independent units of life
◦Basic structural and functional units of an organism that are composed of chemicals
◦Growth, metabolism, irritability, and reproduction
◦Cells vary in size from a sperm (which is about 5 um) long to a nerve cell with thin fibers (which
maybe a meter long). Eg.Muscle cells, Nerve cells, Epithelial cells
Cellular Level / Cells
• Made up of many similar cells that perform a specific function.
Tissue Level / Tissues
Covers body surfaces, lines hollow organs and cavities, and forms glands.
Epithelial Tissues
Connects, supports, and protects body organs while distributing blood vessels to other tissues.
Connective Tissues
Carries information from one part of the body to another through nerve impulses.
Nervous Tissues
Contracts to make body parts move and generates heat.
Muscular Tissue
◦Tissues that are joined together
◦Structures that are composed of two or more different types of tissues
◦they have specific functions and usually have recognizable shapes
◦Eg. stomach, skin, bones, heart, liver, lungs, and brain
Organ Level / Organs
◦Consists of related organs with a common function.
System level / Systems / Organ system
◦Any living individual.
◦All the parts of the human body functioning together
Organism Level / Organism
Comprises all skeletal muscles; primary function is locomotion
Muscular System
Comprises brain and spinal cord and the nerves arising from them;
the master system that coordinates the activities of all other systems
Nervous System
Consisting of ductless glands which produce secretions called
hormones
Endocrine System
Heart and blood vessels; and the lymphatic system composing of
lymph nodes and vessels
Circulatory System
Consisting of joints and their associated bones and ligaments
Articular System
Comprising the lungs and the system of tubes for air
Respiratory System
Kidneys, urinary bladder and excretory passages;
elimination of waste material in urine
Urinary System
Comprising various organs concerned with reproduction
Reproductive System
Bones and cartilaginous parts like chest and nose
Skeletal System
Skin and its appendages
Integumentary System
Oral cavity, pharynx and gut; extends from mouth to anus;
glands like the liver and the pancreas. Concerned with the
assimilation of food
Digestive System
Sum of all the chemical processes that occur in the body.
Metabolism
Breakdown of complex chemical substances into simpler
components.
Catabolism
Building up of complex chemical substances from smaller,
simpler components
Anabolism
Body’s ability to detect and respond to changes.
Responsiveness
Includes motion of the whole body, individual organs, single cells,
and even tiny structures inside cells.
Movement
Increase in body size that results from an increase in the size
of existing cells, an increase in the number of cells, or both.
Growth
Development of a cell from an unspecialized to a specialized state
Differentiation
Refers either to (1) the formation of new cells for tissue growth,
repair, or replacement, or (2) the production of a new individual
Reproduction
• “unchanging sameness”, “staying the same”. (homeo= “the same”, stasis = standing still)
• Maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment that is essential to life.
• Dynamic state of equilibrium (balance) in the body’s internal environment due to the constant
interaction of the body’s many regulatory processes.
Homeostasis
–One way to disrupt HOMEOSTASIS
–is the overall disruption that forces the body to make ADAPTIVE
CHANGES.
Stress
Factors causing stress are called
STRESSORS.
Occurs when the activities of a cell, tissue, organ or
organ system change automatically when faced
with some environment variation
Autoregulation
Results from activities of the nervous or endocrine
system, organ systems that can control or adjust the
activities of many different systems simultaneously
Extrinsic Regulation
fluid within cells
Intracellular Fluid (ICF)
fluid outside body cells
Extracellular Fluid (ECF)
ECF that fills the narrow spaces between cells of tissues.
Interstitial fluid
ECF within blood vessels
Blood plasma
–ECF within lymphatic vessels
Lymph fluid
–ECF within brain and spinal cord
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
–ECF in the joints
Synovial Fluid
ECF in the eyes
Aqueous humor and Vitreous body
▪ Surrounds the body
▪ Changes like temp, pressure and contact with
microorganisms
▪ Source of oxygen and nutrients required by all
body cells.
▪ Waste products of cellular activity are eventually
excreted into the external environment.
External Environment
provides an effective barrier between the body
tissues and the consistently changing external
environment
Skin
Water-based medium in which body cells exist. Cells are bathed in fluid called interstitial or
tissue fluid.
▪ Absorb oxygen and nutrients from the surrounding interstitial fluid
▪ Cellular wastes diffuse into the bloodstream via the interstitial fluid
Internal Environment
• Allows the cell (plasma) membrane to control the entry or exit of many substances, thereby regulating the composition of its internal environment
• Ensures that the chemical composition of the fluid inside cells is different from the
interstitial fluid that bathes them.
Selective permeability
• The body can regulate its internal environment through
•is a cycle of events in which the status of a body condition is monitored, evaluated, changed, re-monitored, reevaluated, and so on.
Feedback system or Feedback loop
Feedback System
- Stimulus
- Receptors
- Control Center
- Effector
- Response
disrupts homeostasis by increasing or decreasing a controlled condition
Stimulus
monitor changes in a controlled condition and sends input (nerve impulses or
chemical signals) to a control center thru the afferent pathway
Receptor/Sensor
establishes the set point, evaluates the input it receives
from the receptors, and generates output commands (nerve impulses or chemical signals) to effectors thru the efferent pathway
Control center/ Integrating system
range of values within which a controlled condition should be maintained
Set point
– receive output from the control center and produce a response or change
Effectors
– return to homeostasis by correcting the disturbance that occurred as detected by the
receptors
Response
• If the change/ effect is opposite/ negative to the initiating stimulus
• Most of the negative feedback mechanisms are beneficial
• Maintenance of homeostasis by negative feedback goes on throughout the body at all times
Negative Feedback
• Rare in the body because they tend to increase the original disturbance (stimulus) and to push the variable farther from its original value.
• Effectors respond by exaggerating or enhancing the stimulus
• Typically used to deal with threat or stress
• Eg. Giving birth -contractions promote more contractions until delivery
Positive Feedback
❑Study of the changes that occur in cells, tissues and organs when altered by
disease and/or injury and the effects these have on normal body function.
❑Provide an understanding of the mechanisms of disease and to explain how and
why alterations in body structure and function lead to the signs and symptoms of
disease.
Pathophysiology
Study of the cause(s) of disease and/or injury
Etiology
Causes of disease can be either:
Endogenous, Exogenous
originating from within the body
Endogenous
coming from outside the body
Exogenous
Diseases can be of unknown cause
Idiopathic
denotes a new disorder, not the patient’s original condition
e.g. Hospital-acquired infection
Nosocomial
Some conditions are caused by the effects of treatments and called
iatrogenic.
-The scientific study of disease.
-Includes the study of structural alterations in cells, tissues and organs that help to identify the cause of disease.
PATHOLOGY
clinical features and include the signs and symptoms of disease
Etiology and pathogenesis of disease
an indication that a disease is present and is what the patient usually complains of
Symptoms
what the clinician or healthcare practitioner is looking or feeling for.
Sign
a disease are often accompanied by structural or functional changes that can be investigated.
Clinical features
Some conditions identify similar clinical features to describe them such as indigestion and angina; the same descriptions of chest pain appear in both conditions and it is difficult at times to tell them apart
differential diagnosis
disease is required to ensure prompt and accurate diagnosis to allow treatment to be instigated.
Proper investigation
A range of diagnostic interventions may be required such as:
X-ray
Laboratory Investigations
The Laboratory Investigations
○ Microbiology
○ Immunology
○ Biochemistry
○ Haematology
○ Histopathology
○ Genetics
