OVERVIEW OF THE HUMAN BODY Flashcards by JASMINE JULIA MARI MUNOZ

Greek word meaning “cut up” (ana = up, tomy = process of cutting)• Greek word meaning “cut up” (ana = up, tomy = process of cutting)
• Study of internal and external structures of body and their relationships to each
other.
• It is the science of body structures and the relationships among them.
• “Form”

Anatomy

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macroscopic, can be seen by the eye; can be studied without microscope.

Gross Anatomy

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is the study of the different regions of the body such as the head and
neck.

Regional Anatomy

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–study of the specific systems of the body such as the reproductive
system and digestive system.

Systemic Anatomy

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study of the landmarks of the body surface of the different visceral
organs

Surface Anatomy

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cell and molecule level, needs microscope, cannot be seen by the
naked eye

Microscopic Anatomy

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– study of cells

Cytology

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study of tissues

Histology

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study of prenatal development; the first eight
weeks of development after fertilization of human being.

Embryological Anatomy or Embryology

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study of human growth and development from fertilized egg to mature adult to death.

Developmental Anatomy

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study of the structures of the body using x–rays and
other noninvasive imaging techniques.

Radiographic Anatomy or Radiology

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structural changes (macroscopic to microscopic) associated with
disease.

Pathological Anatomy

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Comes from the Greek word for the “study of nature” (physio= nature; logy= study of)
Study of how the structure of these organism perform their functions
• It is the science of body functions—how the body parts work.
• “Functions”

Physiology

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The study of the functions of living organs
Cornerstone of human physiology

Cell Physiology

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Study of the functions of specific organs

. Special physiology

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Includes all aspects of the functions of specific organ systems

Systemic physiology

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Study of the effects of diseases on organs or system functions
Study of the functional changes associated with disease and aging

Pathophysiology

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• The study of the form and function of the human body and their characteristics and the
functional changes happening due to disease and aging.

Human Anatomy and Physiology with Pathophysiology

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Structural Organization

1.Chemical level –atoms & molecules,
compounds
2.Cellular level
3.Tissue level
4.Organ level
5.Organ system level
6.Organism level

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◦Simplest level, the body is composed of atoms (indivisible)
◦The basic and smallest unit of all matter. (Eg. Oxygen atom)

Atoms

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◦Combination of two or more atoms.

Molecules

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◦A molecule containing atoms of more than one element. (eg. Water (H2O),
Carbon Dioxide (CO2), Carbohydrates, Proteins and Lipids

Compounds

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◦Smallest independent units of life
◦Basic structural and functional units of an organism that are composed of chemicals
◦Growth, metabolism, irritability, and reproduction
◦Cells vary in size from a sperm (which is about 5 um) long to a nerve cell with thin fibers (which
maybe a meter long). Eg.Muscle cells, Nerve cells, Epithelial cells

Cellular Level / Cells

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• Made up of many similar cells that perform a specific function.

Tissue Level / Tissues

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Covers body surfaces, lines hollow organs and cavities, and forms glands.

Epithelial Tissues

Connects, supports, and protects body organs while distributing blood vessels to other tissues.

Connective Tissues

Carries information from one part of the body to another through nerve impulses.

Nervous Tissues

Contracts to make body parts move and generates heat.

Muscular Tissue

◦Tissues that are joined together ◦Structures that are composed of two or more different types of tissues ◦they have specific functions and usually have recognizable shapes ◦Eg. stomach, skin, bones, heart, liver, lungs, and brain

Organ Level / Organs

◦Consists of related organs with a common function.

System level / Systems / Organ system

◦Any living individual. ◦All the parts of the human body functioning together

Organism Level / Organism

Comprises all skeletal muscles; primary function is locomotion

Muscular System

Comprises brain and spinal cord and the nerves arising from them; the master system that coordinates the activities of all other systems

Nervous System

Consisting of ductless glands which produce secretions called hormones

Endocrine System

Heart and blood vessels; and the lymphatic system composing of lymph nodes and vessels

Circulatory System

Consisting of joints and their associated bones and ligaments

Articular System

Comprising the lungs and the system of tubes for air

Respiratory System

Kidneys, urinary bladder and excretory passages; elimination of waste material in urine

Urinary System

Comprising various organs concerned with reproduction

Reproductive System

Bones and cartilaginous parts like chest and nose

Skeletal System

Skin and its appendages

Integumentary System

Oral cavity, pharynx and gut; extends from mouth to anus; glands like the liver and the pancreas. Concerned with the assimilation of food

Digestive System

Sum of all the chemical processes that occur in the body.

Metabolism

Breakdown of complex chemical substances into simpler components.

Catabolism

Building up of complex chemical substances from smaller, simpler components

Anabolism

Body’s ability to detect and respond to changes.

Responsiveness

Includes motion of the whole body, individual organs, single cells, and even tiny structures inside cells.

Movement

Increase in body size that results from an increase in the size of existing cells, an increase in the number of cells, or both.

Growth

Development of a cell from an unspecialized to a specialized state

Differentiation

Refers either to (1) the formation of new cells for tissue growth, repair, or replacement, or (2) the production of a new individual

Reproduction

• “unchanging sameness”, “staying the same”. (homeo= “the same”, stasis = standing still) • Maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment that is essential to life. • Dynamic state of equilibrium (balance) in the body’s internal environment due to the constant interaction of the body’s many regulatory processes.

Homeostasis

–One way to disrupt HOMEOSTASIS –is the overall disruption that forces the body to make ADAPTIVE CHANGES.

Stress

Factors causing stress are called

STRESSORS.

Occurs when the activities of a cell, tissue, organ or organ system change automatically when faced with some environment variation

Autoregulation

Results from activities of the nervous or endocrine system, organ systems that can control or adjust the activities of many different systems simultaneously

Extrinsic Regulation

fluid within cells

Intracellular Fluid (ICF)

fluid outside body cells

Extracellular Fluid (ECF)

ECF that fills the narrow spaces between cells of tissues.

Interstitial fluid

ECF within blood vessels

Blood plasma

–ECF within lymphatic vessels

Lymph fluid

–ECF within brain and spinal cord

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

–ECF in the joints

Synovial Fluid

ECF in the eyes

Aqueous humor and Vitreous body

▪ Surrounds the body ▪ Changes like temp, pressure and contact with microorganisms ▪ Source of oxygen and nutrients required by all body cells. ▪ Waste products of cellular activity are eventually excreted into the external environment.

External Environment

provides an effective barrier between the body tissues and the consistently changing external environment

Skin

Water-based medium in which body cells exist. Cells are bathed in fluid called interstitial or tissue fluid. ▪ Absorb oxygen and nutrients from the surrounding interstitial fluid ▪ Cellular wastes diffuse into the bloodstream via the interstitial fluid

Internal Environment

• Allows the cell (plasma) membrane to control the entry or exit of many substances, thereby regulating the composition of its internal environment • Ensures that the chemical composition of the fluid inside cells is different from the interstitial fluid that bathes them.

Selective permeability

• The body can regulate its internal environment through •is a cycle of events in which the status of a body condition is monitored, evaluated, changed, re-monitored, reevaluated, and so on.

Feedback system or Feedback loop

Feedback System

1. Stimulus 2. Receptors 3. Control Center 4. Effector 5. Response

disrupts homeostasis by increasing or decreasing a controlled condition

Stimulus

monitor changes in a controlled condition and sends input (nerve impulses or chemical signals) to a control center thru the afferent pathway

Receptor/Sensor

establishes the set point, evaluates the input it receives from the receptors, and generates output commands (nerve impulses or chemical signals) to effectors thru the efferent pathway

Control center/ Integrating system

range of values within which a controlled condition should be maintained

Set point

– receive output from the control center and produce a response or change

Effectors

– return to homeostasis by correcting the disturbance that occurred as detected by the receptors

Response

• If the change/ effect is opposite/ negative to the initiating stimulus • Most of the negative feedback mechanisms are beneficial • Maintenance of homeostasis by negative feedback goes on throughout the body at all times

Negative Feedback

• Rare in the body because they tend to increase the original disturbance (stimulus) and to push the variable farther from its original value. • Effectors respond by exaggerating or enhancing the stimulus • Typically used to deal with threat or stress • Eg. Giving birth -contractions promote more contractions until delivery

Positive Feedback

❑Study of the changes that occur in cells, tissues and organs when altered by disease and/or injury and the effects these have on normal body function. ❑Provide an understanding of the mechanisms of disease and to explain how and why alterations in body structure and function lead to the signs and symptoms of disease.

Pathophysiology

Study of the cause(s) of disease and/or injury

Etiology

Causes of disease can be either:

Endogenous, Exogenous

originating from within the body

Endogenous

coming from outside the body

Exogenous

Diseases can be of unknown cause

Idiopathic

denotes a new disorder, not the patient’s original condition e.g. Hospital-acquired infection

Nosocomial

Some conditions are caused by the effects of treatments and called

iatrogenic.

-The scientific study of disease. -Includes the study of structural alterations in cells, tissues and organs that help to identify the cause of disease.

PATHOLOGY

clinical features and include the signs and symptoms of disease

Etiology and pathogenesis of disease

an indication that a disease is present and is what the patient usually complains of

Symptoms

what the clinician or healthcare practitioner is looking or feeling for.

Sign

a disease are often accompanied by structural or functional changes that can be investigated.

Clinical features

Some conditions identify similar clinical features to describe them such as indigestion and angina; the same descriptions of chest pain appear in both conditions and it is difficult at times to tell them apart

differential diagnosis

disease is required to ensure prompt and accurate diagnosis to allow treatment to be instigated.

Proper investigation

A range of diagnostic interventions may be required such as:

X-ray Laboratory Investigations

The Laboratory Investigations

○ Microbiology ○ Immunology ○ Biochemistry ○ Haematology ○ Histopathology ○ Genetics