Module 3 - Manley Ch 1 - Reasoning

Question 1

What is reasoning, and why is it difficult?

Answer 1

Reasoning is the process of forming beliefs and making decisions based on evidence. It is difficult because it requires cutting through irrelevant noise and avoiding cognitive biases.

Question 2

How does good reasoning benefit us?

Answer 2

It helps us acquire accurate beliefs and make better decisions.

Question 3

What common misuse of reasoning skills do people often exhibit?

Answer 3

People often use reasoning to justify their pre-existing beliefs and actions, reinforcing mistakes rather than correcting them.

Question 4

What analogy is used to describe the development of reasoning skills?

Answer 4

Reasoning skills are compared to athletic ability: knowledge of techniques is insufficient; practice and retraining are necessary.

Question 5

Why do bad reasoning habits persist?

Answer 5

Bad habits and instincts in reasoning are reinforced over a lifetime of belief formation and decision-making.

Question 6

What is the difference between specific and general reasoning skills?

Answer 6

Specific skills are tied to particular domains (e.g., accounting, biology), while general reasoning skills apply across all areas of life.

Question 7

What are some foundations of general reasoning skills

Answer 7

Understanding the structure of reasons.

Drawing conclusions using logic and probability.

Avoiding selection effects when searching for evidence.

Generalizing observations appropriately.

Identifying and distinguishing correlations from causation.

Assessing theories for plausibility and explanatory power.

Comparing the value and probability of outcomes to make decisions.

Question 8

What mindset supports good reasoning?

Answer 8

A genuine desire to understand how the world is, seeking evidence, and being open to revising beliefs.

Question 9

What are System 1 and System 2 processes?

Answer 9

System 1: Fast, automatic, subconscious processes (e.g., recognizing faces, sensing danger).

System 2: Slow, deliberate, conscious processes (e.g., solving math problems, weighing pros and cons).

Question 10

How do System 1 and System 2 differ in terms of control?

Answer 10

System 1: Operates automatically and cannot be turned on or off at will.

System 2: Requires deliberate intention and can be controlled directly.

Question 11

How do System 1 and System 2 differ in terms of transparency?

Answer 11

System 1: Processes are subconscious and not open to inspection.

System 2: Processes are transparent, and we can observe the steps of reasoning.

Question 12

How do System 1 and System 2 differ in terms of effort?

Answer 12

System 1: Effortless and automatic (e.g., catching a ball).

System 2: Requires mental effort and focus (e.g., solving a math problem).

Question 13

What is prosopagnosia, and how does it highlight System 1 processing?

Answer 13

Prosopagnosia is an impairment in recognizing faces.

Without System 1’s automatic recognition, affected individuals must rely on effortful System 2 processes.

Question 14

What are cognitive illusions?

Answer 14

Errors in System 1 processes that persist even after conscious realization (e.g., fear of flying despite knowing it’s safer than driving).

Question 15

What are the strengths and weaknesses of System 1 processes?

Answer 15

Strengths: Fast, efficient, and capable of complex tasks like facial recognition and trajectory calculations.

Weaknesses: Prone to systematic errors and cognitive illusions.

Question 16

Why are System 1 processes critical to functioning?

Answer 16

They filter sensory inputs and prioritize what requires attention, preventing sensory overload.

Question 17

What is “cognitive miserliness,” and how does it affect reasoning?

Answer 17

Cognitive miserliness refers to our tendency to avoid the mental effort required by System 2, leading to reliance on easier System 1 processes.

Question 18

What are cognitive pitfalls?

Answer 18

Systematic errors in reasoning, including mental glitches, probabilistic errors, decision-making mistakes, and logical fallacies.

Question 19

What are the three main sources of cognitive errors?

Answer 19

Taking cognitive shortcuts.

Holding onto beliefs without good reason.

Allowing motivations to conflict with accuracy.

Question 20

Why do we often take cognitive shortcuts?

Answer 20

To avoid the effort of System 2 thinking, letting System 1 provide intuitive but sometimes unreliable answers.

Question 21

What is the availability heuristic?

Answer 21

A mental shortcut where we estimate the likelihood of events based on how easily examples come to mind, often leading to biased judgments.

Question 22

What is belief perseverance?

Answer 22

The tendency to cling to beliefs even when the original reasons for holding them have been debunked.

Question 23

What is confirmation bias?

Answer 23

The tendency to focus on evidence that supports our pre-existing beliefs while ignoring or dismissing contradictory evidence.

Question 24

What is the evidence primacy effect?

Answer 24

The tendency for earlier evidence to have a greater influence on beliefs than later evidence.

Question 25

How does confirmation bias affect reasoning?

Answer 25

It leads us to:

Accept supporting evidence uncritically.
Seek ways to discredit contradictory evidence.

Question 26

What is motivated reasoning?

Answer 26

Forming and maintaining beliefs based on how we want things to be, rather than how they actually are.

Question 27

Why do people often believe they are “better than average”?

Answer 27

Motivated reasoning subtly skews our interpretations, especially for traits that are hard to measure, like leadership or friendliness.

Question 28

How does motivated reasoning influence how we process evidence?

Answer 28

We focus on evidence that supports desired beliefs.

We apply selective standards to justify our preferred conclusions.

Question 29

Is System 1 always unreliable?

Answer 29

No, System 1 is highly effective for many tasks and can become more reliable with training and experience in environments that provide clear feedback.

Question 30

What is skilled intuition?

Answer 30

The ability to make fast and accurate judgments based on learned patterns, developed through extensive experience and feedback.

Question 31

How can we improve reasoning and decision-making?

Answer 31

Train System 1 through reliable feedback and practice.

Use System 2 to monitor and correct System 1 errors.

Recognize situations where System 1 is unreliable and engage System 2.