Module 6 - Belanger Ch 9 - Political Organizations in Canada

Question 1

When did Indigenous political organizations in Canada begin to form?

Answer 1

They date back to 1870, emerging separately from Indian Act–mandated band councils to advocate for Indigenous rights.

Question 2

What challenges do Indigenous political organizations face?

Answer 2

Balancing community-based political needs with operating within federal, provincial, territorial, and municipal political systems.

Question 3

How did Indigenous peoples organize politically before European contact?

Answer 3

Through complex governance systems and councils based on spiritual, political, and social principles.

Question 4

What were two key systems of pre-contact Indigenous organizing?

Answer 4

Intra-tribal: Focused on internal community relations.

Inter-tribal: Addressed regional political and economic issues.

Question 5

What was the purpose of Indigenous confederacies?

Answer 5

To unify nations for mutual goals, maintain political and economic ties, and counter European influence.

Question 6

Name two historical Indigenous confederacies and their members.

Answer 6

Iroquois Confederacy (Haudenosaunee): Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Seneca, Cayuga, and later Tuscarora.

Blackfoot Confederacy: Siksika, Kainai, North Piikuni, South Piikuni, and formerly the Gros Ventres.

Question 7

What led to the formation of Indigenous political organizations after Confederation?

Answer 7

The need to counter federal policies like the Gradual Enfranchisement Act (1869) and advocate for treaty rights and self-governance.

Question 8

What was the Grand General Indian Council of Ontario and Quebec (GIC)?

Answer 8

A political alliance formed in 1870 by Ojibwa and Mohawk leaders to address federal policies and settler immigration impacts.

Question 9

What challenges did early Indigenous organizations face?

Answer 9

Internal discord over strategy, competition with band councils, and federal resistance to Indigenous governance models.

Question 10

Who were key early Indigenous political leaders?

Answer 10

Leaders like Peter Jones (Ojibwa Methodist missionary) and F.O. Loft (Mohawk World War I veteran).

Question 11

What catalyzed the second wave of Indigenous political organizing?

Answer 11

The B.C. land question.

Indigenous participation in the labor movement.

A growing pan-Indigenous consciousness.

Inspiration from the Society of American Indians (SAI) in the U.S.

Question 12

What was the League of Indians of Canada, and who founded it?

Answer 12

Founded by F.O. Loft in 1918, it aimed to unify Indigenous peoples and advocate for their rights nationally.

Question 13

What role did the Allied Bands play in Indigenous political organizing?

Answer 13

They resisted land surrenders, lobbied for treaty protections, and laid the groundwork for self-determination and nation-building language.

Question 14

What was the significance of the Native Brotherhood of British Columbia (NBBC)?

Answer 14

Initially a labor union, it evolved into a provincial political organization advocating for Indigenous rights and representation.

Question 15

What was the purpose of the SJC?

Answer 15

To investigate the validity of the Indian Act and hear Indigenous leaders’ concerns.

Question 16

What were the outcomes of the SJC hearings?

Answer 16

It reaffirmed Canada’s assimilation policies while making minimal changes, frustrating Indigenous leaders.

Question 17

How did Indigenous leaders react to the recommendations of the SJC?

Answer 17

Reactions ranged from complete disgust to cautious optimism that federal officials had at least consulted them.

Question 18

When did Indigenous peoples in Canada gain the right to vote in federal elections without losing their status?

Answer 18

In 1960, under Prime Minister John Diefenbaker.

Question 19

What barriers prevented Indigenous voting in federal elections prior to 1960?

Answer 19

Perceived lack of “civilized status”

Access to “privileges” such as treaty rights

Lack of fee simple landholdings (private property ownership)

Assertions of Indigenous nationhood

Question 20

What was Leah Gazan’s (Lakota) perspective on Indigenous voting?

Answer 20

Voting does not compromise sovereignty as sovereignty comes from the land.

Voting is a tool to influence treaty relationships and community-based politics.

Question 21

What was the Union of Ontario Indians (UOI), and when was it formed?

Answer 21

A regional Indigenous organization formed in 1946, addressing issues like the Indian Act, hunting and fishing rights, medical services, education, and land.

Question 22

What was the significance of the Manitoba Indian Brotherhood (MIB)?

Answer 22

Released the 1971 report Whabung: Our Tomorrows, which influenced Indigenous community-development policy.

Highlighted dismal health care in Indigenous communities.

Set policy directions for building a stronger Indigenous economic base.

Question 23

What organization filled the leadership gap after the MIB disbanded in 1981?

Answer 23

The Assembly of Manitoba Chiefs (AMC), formed in 1988.

Question 24

What was the original name of the Federation of Sovereign Indigenous Nations (FSIN)?

Answer 24

The Union of Saskatchewan Indians, later renamed the Federation of Saskatchewan Indian Nations in 1982.

Question 25

What is the primary focus of the FSIN?

Answer 25

Asserting rights as distinct nations.

Advocating for the recognition and protection of treaty rights.

Question 26

What was the National Indian Council (NIC), and when was it established?

Answer 26

Formed in 1961, it aimed to represent treaty and Status Indians, Non-Status Indians, and the Métis.

Question 27

Why did the NIC dissolve in 1968?

Answer 27

Tensions between treaty Indians, Métis, and Non-Status Indians led to its split into the National Indian Brotherhood (NIB) and the Canadian Métis Society (CMS).

Question 28

What significant change did the 1982 Constitution Act bring for Indigenous peoples?

Answer 28

Recognized Aboriginal people as Métis, Inuit, Status Indians, and Non-Status Indians.

Affirmed existing Aboriginal and treaty rights.

Question 29

When was the Assembly of First Nations (AFN) formed, and what led to its creation?

Answer 29

Formed in 1982, it emerged from dissatisfaction with the National Indian Brotherhood (NIB) and the need for a more accountable, representative organization.

Question 30

What were the major accomplishments of the AFN?

Answer 30

Played a key role in constitutional debates.

Influenced the Inherent Rights Policy.

Opposed the Meech Lake Accord in 1990.

Critiqued the U.S.–Canada Free Trade Agreement and other policies affecting First Nations.

Question 31

Why is the AFN significant as a political organization?

Answer 31

It is the most recognizable national Indigenous political organization, representing the chiefs of all Status Indian bands in Canada.

Question 32

What was the impact of Indigenous resistance to the White Paper?

Answer 32

Unified Indigenous organizations against termination policies.

Increased public awareness and federal acknowledgment of treaty obligations.

Influenced policies such as Indian control of Indian education and the recognition of Aboriginal rights in the Constitution.

Question 33

How does federal funding impact Indigenous political organizations?

Answer 33

Organizations rely on federal funding but face challenges due to cuts or restrictions.

Example: The AFN faced a $19 million to $11 million cut in 2002 after Grand Chief Matthew Coon Come’s criticism of the FNGA.

In 2014, the Conservative government implemented a 10% funding cut, severely impacting organizations like the FSIN and Assembly of Manitoba Chiefs.

Question 34

How has the role of women in Indigenous organizations changed over time?

Answer 34

Historically, women held significant roles as leaders, educators, and advisors in Indigenous governance.

The Indian Act (1876) excluded women from holding band council positions, diminishing their political roles.

Modern organizations have started addressing this, but as of today, only 17% of Indian Act chiefs are female.

Question 35

What are tribal councils, and what services do they provide?

Answer 35

Groupings of bands with common interests, offering advisory and program services such as:

Economic development
Financial management
Community planning
Technical services
Band governance

Question 36

What role do Non-Status Indigenous organizations play?

Answer 36

They advocate for:

Ending legal segregation of Non-Status Indians.

Gaining political recognition and access to resources.

Influencing policies after the Daniels decision (2016), which recognized federal responsibility for Métis and Non-Status Indians.

Question 37

How do tribal councils differ from national organizations?

Answer 37

Tribal councils focus on regional and local issues, providing direct services and advisory roles, rather than lobbying at the national level.

Question 38

What was the impact of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) final report?

Answer 38

It highlighted divisions within Indigenous organizations, with groups like the AFN and ITK included in discussions, but others like CAP and NWAC excluded, sparking criticism about representation.

Question 39

How did the Indian Act (1876) impact Indigenous women’s roles in governance?

Answer 39

It legally excluded women from band councils, significantly reducing their influence in political decision-making.