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a level psychology > learning theories > Flashcards

learning theories Flashcards

1
Q

3 learning theories

A

classical conditioning
operant conditioning
social learning theory

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2
Q

what is classical conditioning ?

A

it explains how we can learn involuntary reflexes through associating stimuli and responses

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3
Q

unconditioned stimulus

A

anything that naturally has the power to produce a response in a human/animal

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4
Q

unconditioned response

A

natural reflex response to an unconditioned stimulus

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5
Q

neutral stimulus

A

something in the environment which does not initially cause a response

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6
Q

conditioned stimulus

A

neutral stimulus becomes conditioned stimulus when it acquires the ability to produce a specific response to it

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7
Q

conditioned response

A

learnt response to something

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8
Q

stimulus generalization

A

when stimuli similar to CS produce the CR

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9
Q

extinction

A

when CR declines and disappears because the CS is repeatedly presented in the absence of the UCS

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10
Q

spontaneous recovery

A

when the CR reappears in a weakened form in response to the CS

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11
Q

discrimination

A

the CR is only produced in response to the CS and not to similar stimuli

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12
Q

evidence for classical conditioning

A
  • watson and rainer
    little albert could be conditioned to become afraid of white rats by pairing the presentation of the rat with a loud noise
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13
Q

how good is the evidence for classical conditioning

A
  • watson and rayner :
  • controlled environment = highly scientific and would have reduced environmental variables which could affect results

however :
- lacks ecological validity so doesn’t show how conditioning occurs in the real world

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14
Q

comparisons and limitations to classical conditioning

A
  • explains involuntary reflexes which other theories don’t
  • reductionist - ignores influence of biology and focuses on nurture factors
  • suggests we don’t have a choice - determinist, when we are conditioned which may not be true as people choose to overcome fears
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15
Q

applications of classical conditioning

A
  • systematic desensitization
  • flooding
  • aversion therapy, associating an addiction with something unpleasant
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16
Q

what is operant conditioning

A

voluntary behavior can be influenced through reinforcement and punishment

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17
Q

reinforcement

A

encouraging behavior

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18
Q

positive reinforcement

A

encouraging a behavior by giving someone something pleasant,
e.g chocolate for tidying up

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19
Q

negative reinforcement

A

encouraging a behavior by taking away something unpleasant, e.g, taking away chores for doing well in a test

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20
Q

punishment

A

discourages a behavior by doing something unpleasant to stop it

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21
Q

positive punishment

A

discouraging behavior by giving someone something unpleasant e.g extra homework for messing around

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22
Q

negative punishment

A

discouraging a behavior by taking away something pleasant, e.g phone for being rude

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23
Q

difference between reinforcement and punishment

A

reinforcement is used when desired behavior occurs and punishment is used when undesired behavior occurs

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24
Q

contingency

A

reliability or predictability of the consequence following the behavior

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25
Q

for learning to occur, what should contingency be ?

A

consequence must clearly be linked to the behavior and the individual must perceive that performing a specific behavior will lead to a specific outcome

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26
Q

contiguity

A

refers to timing between behavior and the consequence

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27
Q

how should contiguity be for learning to take place ?

A

consequences need to follow the behavior immediately after if there’s a delay association weakens

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28
Q

primary reinforcement

A

refers to a reinforcement which directly satisfies advice biological needs, e.g drink shelter food warmth comfort

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29
Q

secondary reinforcement

A

things that help to indirectly meet a biological need, eg getting money to buy food

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30
Q

4 schedules of reinforcement

A

fixed interval
variable interval
fixed ratio
variable ratio

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31
Q

fixed interval

A

reinforcer is delivered after a set period of time as long as at least 1 behavior occurs during that time

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32
Q

variable interval

A

reinforcer is delivered after an unpredictable amount of time which averages to a certain level as long as 1 behavior occurs during that time

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33
Q

fixed ratio

A

a reinforcer is given after a specified number of behaviours

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34
Q

variable ratio

A

reinforcer is given after an unpredictable number of behaviors but it averages to a certain number

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35
Q

fixed interval example

A

getting a cup of tea at work every 2 hours if a good job was done

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36
Q

weakness of fixed interval

A

as there’s no suprise it may just be that just before the 2 hour interval good work would be produced, before that the work wouldn’t be as good

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37
Q

variable interval example

A

getting a cup of tea approximately every 2 hours but not being sure at what time period within the 2 hours the cup of tea would be given

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38
Q

strength of variable interval

A

you know a cup of tea is coming for working well but as you don’t know exactly when, you work well for most of the time in anticipation

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39
Q

fixed ratio example

A

getting paid at work for every 100 parts produced

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40
Q

variable ratio example

A

gambling using a slot machine- machine would be expected to pay out over time but person playing wouldn’t know when a reward is going to be given

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41
Q

shaping

A

idea of encouraging complex behaviors, this is done by reinforcing successive approximations of the behavior

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42
Q

successful approximations

A

rewarding behavior should occur in steps and should gradually be more selective with rewards until exact behavior is given

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43
Q

chaining

A

break down behaviors info steps which are taught and reinforced 1 at a time

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44
Q

shaping example

A

when babies start to babble when learning to speak they are initially reinforced by attention but this only continued if the child goes on to produce recognizable words and later a series of words

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45
Q

thorndike - operant conditioning

A

cats and puzzle box :
cats used trial and error to try and escape the puzzle box

with positive reinforcement cat food helped them to remember how to escape the puzzle box

behavior changes due to consequence

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46
Q

skinner - skinners box - operant conditioning

A
  • box which animals are put in with levers which delivered a positive, eg food or negative reinforcement, eg shock

rats quickly learnt to go straight to the lever which delivered food (reward)

positive reinforcement

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47
Q

skinner - superstitious pigeon - operant conditioning

A
  • pigeons placed in a box and were randomly dispensed food
  • pigeons started to dance as they thought whatever action they did when food was delivered would reward them
  • tried to repeat and get further rewarded

associated beauvoir with food - reward can reinforce behavior

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48
Q

strengths of operant conditioning

A

Applied
Reliable
Evidence

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49
Q

applications of operant conditioning

A
  • helps to create effective learning systems, particularly for children and animals e.g training them to follow an instructions by giving a reward
  • explains phobias as they are maintained through avoidance which is negatively reinforced
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50
Q

how is operant conditioning reliable ?

A
  • lots of evidence to support it
  • standardized procedures in controlled conditions
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51
Q

evidence for operant conditioning

A
  • skinners box
  • skinner - superstition pigeons
  • cats puzzle box
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52
Q

operant conditioning lovaas theory

A
  • used behavior modification to treat children with autism
  • therapy of reinforcement and punishment
53
Q

weaknesses operant conditioning

A
  • ethics
  • fails to consider intrinsic motivation
54
Q

operant conditioning ethics

A

behavior modification gives therapists power to determine behavior of patients

open to abuse not protected from harm

  • animals used in experiments may be distressed
55
Q

how does operant fail to consider intrinsic motivation

A
  • properties of reinforcement provide complete account of human motivation
  • reinforcement is linked to extrinsic motivation which are outside factors
  • but we can also be intrinsically motivated by our own enjoyment
56
Q

is classical conditioning voluntary or involuntary

A

involuntary, NS causes UCS

57
Q

is operant conditioning voluntary or involuntary work responses

A
  • voluntary - behavior is associated with consequence
58
Q

what is the role of the learner in classical conditioning

A

passive - learner internalizes their natural environments and learns information

59
Q

role of learner operant conditioning

A

involved active participation of the learner - consciously changing behavior

60
Q

timing of stimulus classical conditioning

A

interval between C + UCS

61
Q

timing of stimulus operant conditioning

A

reinforcement schedule dictates when and how often behavior will be reinforced

62
Q

what was the aim of vaughan et al study

A
  • researchers wanted to find out about urination of cows and defactation habits of cows
  • used both operant and classical conditioning to see if they could get cows to urinate in a specific place
63
Q

sample vaughan et al

A

24 cows
12 calves given UCS of a diuretic which caused USR of ruination

12 calves milk allowance was cut to make milk a better reward -

64
Q

how were the 12 cows classically conditioned

A

given diuretic which caused UCR of urination
cows were given diuretic in the stall which made them urinate in the stall

when diuretic was no longer used cows were conditioned to urinate in stall

65
Q

how were 12 cows operant conditioning

A

12 calves milk allowance was cut to make milk a better reward
when calf urinated bell rang and they were given milk as a reward whenever they urinated in the stall

66
Q

vaughan et al which condition worked better ?

A

operant conditioning

67
Q

strengths of evidence operant conditioning

A
  • highly scientific
  • well controlled environment
68
Q

weakness of experiments operant conditioning

A
  • lacks ecological validity
  • often uses animals which can’t always be generalized to humans
69
Q

limitations of operant conditioning

A
  • ignores cognitive processes such as specific behavior patterns
  • reductionist - ignores influence of biology
70
Q

what is the social learning theory

A

learning occurs through observation someone we look up to or relate to (role model) after we observe behavior we can imitate them

71
Q

what characteristics are important for a role model ?

A

whether they are of high status
if they share similar characteristics or interests
same gender
similar age

72
Q

what factors affect imitation

A
  • characters of the observer, self esteem, self efficacy
  • consequences of behavior of the model, whether they are rewarded or punished
73
Q

what is vicarious learning

A

we learn through others mistakes or successes

74
Q

vicarious reinforcement

A

when you imitate the behavior of someone who has been reinforced for that behavior

75
Q

example of vicarious reinforcement

A

avoiding hot water after seeing another person get burnt by it

76
Q

vicarious punishment

A

tendency to engage in a behavior is weakened after having observed negative consequences for another engaging in that behavior

77
Q

vicarious extinction

A

occurs when it is noticed that the person who has bdddn observed in engaging in a behavior jd no longer rewarded for that behavior

78
Q

what are the stages of social learning theory

A

observation / attention
retention
reproduction
motivation

79
Q

observation

A

active process through which observer chooses to focus their attention on the modeled behavior

80
Q

retention

A

individual must retain or store what they’ve seen

assisted by imagery or language and stored by mental images

81
Q

reproduction

A

person shows behaviors they have seen modelled

self efficacy is important here

82
Q

influence of self esteem social learning theory

A

people are more likely to copy role models who were similar to them, getting positive feedback

83
Q

influence of self efficacy social learning theory

A
  • having previous successful experiences, observing and imitating peoples responses
84
Q

motivation social learning theory

A
  • final stage, refers to incentive
    if reward is offered we are more likely to reproduce behaviors
85
Q

vicarious reinforcement

A

people learn new behaviors by observing and imitating others - a behavior is learnt by observing others being rewarded for it

86
Q

vicarious punishment

A

someone sees another person experience negative consequences of a behavior

87
Q

extrinsic motivation

A
  • if behavior is rewarded, something tangible
  • revolves around a physical outcome
88
Q

intrinsic motivation

A
  • inherent satisfaction that comes from within

3.g excitement

89
Q

what were the studies to support social learning theory

A
  • bandura 1961
  • bandura 1963
  • bandura 1965
90
Q

bandura 1961 aim

A

to investigate if aggressive behavior is learnt by children imitating an aggressive role model

91
Q

bandura hypothesis 1961

A
  • children will imitate same sex role models
  • boys are likely to be more aggressive than girls
  • observing an aggressive model will reproduce aggressive acts
  • observing a non aggressive role model or no role model at all will lead to to less aggressive behavior
92
Q

sample bandura 1961

A
  • 72 children from stanford nursery school
  • aged 37-69 months
  • 36 boys 36 girls
93
Q

aggressive model - bandura 1961

A
  • children observed adult aggressively
94
Q

non aggressive model (bandura 1961)

A
  • children observed a non aggressive adult
95
Q

no model bandura 1961

A
  • children observed no adults at all
96
Q

how were children matched and assigned to watch each model bandura 1961

A
  • matched on levels of natural aggression before their experiment
97
Q

how were the children’s natural levels of aggression assigned

A
  • children’s nursery teacher and the experimenter rated their aggression levels out of 5 looking for physical and verbal aggression and aggression inhibition, towards objects
98
Q

who saw the aggressive model ?

A

6 - boys dee aggressive make model
6- boys see aggressive female model
6- girls see aggressive male model
6 - girls see aggressive female model

99
Q

who saw non aggressive model - bandura 1961

A

same as aggressive but with non aggressive model instead

100
Q

what was stage 1 of bandura 1961

A
  • modelling = children were collected and taken into the experimental room
  • to keep kids interested they give them a high interest task, eg potato prints
  • once settled they are taken to see bobo doll
  • if in aggressive model condition the model is physically and verbally aggressive to the doll
101
Q

give examples of physical and verbal aggression the aggressive model showed the bobo doll

A
  • punching
  • kicking
  • throwing doll
  • hitting doll with mallet
  • “hit him down”
  • “he keeps coming back for more”
  • “sock him in the nose”
  • “pow”
102
Q

how long does the aggressor spend being aggressive ?

A

10 mins

103
Q

stage 2- bandura 1961

A

aggression arousal - child is taken into another room of colorful attractive toys
after 2 mins the child is told the toys are for other children and taken out of the room to annoy the children

104
Q

stage 3 bandura 1961 ?

A
  • delayed imitation test
  • kids are taken to another room with new toys which are either aggressive or non aggressive, mallet, gun
105
Q

stage 3- bandura 1961 how are children observed

A

experimenter another researcher and model is watching behind a one way mirror
except for 1 experimenter who watched kid in room pretending to do work

106
Q

how long is the child observed for in stage 3-

A

20 mins recorded every 5 seconds

107
Q

what were the observers looking for during stage 3 bandura 1961

A
  • imitative aggression
  • partial imitation
  • non imitative aggression
108
Q

findings bandura 1961

A

children who saw aggressive model were more imitavely aggressive towards bobo doll

boys were more likely to imitate same sex models then girls

boys were more physically aggressive than girls

109
Q

bandura 1963 aims

A

investigate whether a filmed model would hood to have the same effect as a live model on children’s aggression

second aim was to investigate whether cartoon aggression would have a similar impact to realistic filmed aggression

110
Q

experiment type bandura 1963

A

lab experiment
independent groups designs

111
Q

sample bandura 1963

A

48 boys
48 girls
aged 39-52 months
stanford university nursery

112
Q

independent variable bandura 1963

A
  • model
113
Q

dependent variable bandura 1963

A
  • level of aggression child displayed
114
Q

bandura 1963 live aggression condition

A
  • watched an adult aggressive bobo doll in real life
115
Q

filmed realistic aggression bandura 1963

A

watched tv model aggressive vovo on screen

116
Q

cartoon aggression bandura 1963

A

watched tv modem dressed as black cat do some aggressive actions to a bobo doll

117
Q

control group bandura 1963

A
  • did not watch aggression
118
Q

procedure bandura 1963

A
  • same as original surfy children are frustrated and observed in a playroom
119
Q

conclusion bandura 1963

A
  • exposure to live or filmed aggression increases likelihood of aggression in response to frustration even if aggression is modeled by a cartoon figure
120
Q

bandura 1965 aim

A
  • to consider whether reinforcement and punishment of an aggressive model would influence the aggression displayed by observers in response to frustration
121
Q

sample bandura 1965

A
  • 33 boys 33 girls
  • 42-71 months
  • stanford nursery
122
Q

independent variable bandura 1965

A
  • observed consequence for model
123
Q

dependent variable bandura 1965

A
  • children’s aggression
124
Q

what were the 3 conditions bandura 1965

A
  • model rewarded condition
  • model punished condition
    no consequence condition
125
Q

model rewarded condition bandura 1965

A
  • children saw adult praise model for aggression they were gifted chocolate and a drink
126
Q

no consequences condition bandura 1965

A
  • model neither reinforced or punished
127
Q

bandura 1965 process -

A
  • children were taken into a playroom and frustrated like before but all 3 groups were offered rewards to aggress towards the doll
128
Q

bandura 1965 findings

A
  • children in model punished condition were less aggressive than other 2 groups however adding a reward wiped out the difference increasing scores significantly for all groups
129
Q

conclusion bandura 1965

A
  • vicarious punishment reduces aggression however reinforcement is a more powerful influence on aggression

a level psychology (13 decks)

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