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Inheritence Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
0
Q

An undifferentiated cell that has the potential to differentiate into any cell type

A

Stem cell

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1
Q

A double helix shaped molecule that contains genetic information and makes up chromosomes

A

DNA

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2
Q

A region of a chromosome that contains the information for making a protein

A

Gene

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3
Q

Method of making clones from plants by removing a small amount of the parent plant, after planted it then grows into an independent plant

A

Cuttings

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4
Q

Small changes between individuals of the same species (result of sexual reproduction)

A

Variation

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5
Q

A constricted region in the middle of a chromosome that holds the chromatids together

A

Centromere

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6
Q

Reproduction without fusion of gametes

A

Asexual reproduction

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7
Q

Discoverer of DNA structure

A

James Watson/Francis Crick

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8
Q

Cell organelle where DNA is found

A

Nucleus

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9
Q

Reproduction that involves fusion of gametes

A

Sexual reproduction

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10
Q

Female scientist working on discovery of DNA structure

A

Rosalind Franklin

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11
Q

Sugar that is part of the backbone of DNA

A

Deoxyribose

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12
Q

Part of the backbone of DNA

A

Phosphate

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13
Q

Part of a DNA molecule (A,C,T,G)

A

Base

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14
Q

First mammal to be cloned

A

Dolly the sheep

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15
Q

A chain of amino acids

A

Protein

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16
Q

Genetically identical cell

A

Clone

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17
Q

Thread like structure in the nucleus made of DNA

A

Chromosome

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18
Q

One half of a duplicated chromosome

A

Chromatid

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19
Q

Method of making clones from plants using only a few cells

A

Micropropagation

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20
Q

The technology of modifying the genome of an organism

A

Genetic engineering

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21
Q

Cell division which leads to production of genetically identical cells

A

Mitosis

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22
Q

X or Y

A

Gender chromosome

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23
Q

The process of making a copy of DNA

A

DNA replication

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24
Q

Mitosis is when…

A

A cell produces itself by splitting to form two identical offspring

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25
Q

Meiosis…

A

Produces cells which have half the normal number of chromosomes

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26
Q

Gene

A

A small region of DNA (a small par of the chromosome)

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27
Q

Protein

A

A chain of amino acids that lead to the expression of certain characteristics

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28
Q

How many bases code for an amino acid

A

3

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29
Q

How many pairs of chromosomes do you take from each parent

A

23

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30
Q

How many pairs of somatic chromosomes and sex chromosomes do you receive from each parent

A

22

1

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31
Q

Each pair of somatic chromosomes consist of one chromosome from the … And one from the …
The chromosomes in each pair are called …. Chromosomes (same) because the contain the same genes

A

Mother
Father
Homologous

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32
Q

After 23 pairs of chromosomes from each parent have joined after fertilisation, a …. Is formed (fertilised egg) for …. To occur. Then ….. Happens to these multiplying chromosomes.

A

Zygote
Mitosis
Specialisation

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33
Q

Meiosis occurs when either a male or female is making a …..

A

Sex cell

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34
Q

Label and recognise diagrams of meisos

A

Label and recognise diagrams of mitosis

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35
Q

What is the advantage of meiosis to the next generation of individuals

A

It allows variation

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36
Q

Go step by step through mitosis

A
  • interphase: DNA is copied
  • prophase: chromosomes become visible under a microscope
  • prometaphase: nuclear membrane disappears and spindle fibres are formed
  • metaphase: the chromosomes align on the ‘equator’ or the spindle, nuclear membrane gone
  • anaphase: the spindle fibres pull the chromatids apart
  • telophase: two new nuclear membranes are formed
  • cytokinesis: the cells start to divide, two new genetically identical daughter cells are formed
  • I Probably Participate More After Taking Cocaine
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37
Q

We use mitosis for…

A

Growth and repair of cells

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38
Q

Mitosis occur in…

A

All body cells (except sex cells)
In plants
In bacteria and other microorganisms

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39
Q

Meiosis is when …

A

A special type of cell division occurs by which gametes are formed

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40
Q

Diploid

A

Complete set of chromosomes

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41
Q

Haploid

A

One set of chromosomes

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42
Q

Go step by step through meiosis

A
  • interphase: normal diploid cell
  • continued: chromosomes are copied (DNA replication)
  • prophase 1: homologous chromosomes pair up and crossing over occurs, the nucleus membrane breaks up
  • metaphase 1: chromosome pairs align at the equator if the cell (spindles needed), random arrangement of chromosomes from mother to father (independent assortment)
  • anaphase 1: chromosomes move to opposite ends of cell
  • telophase 1: new nuclear membranes form around each new nucleus
  • cytokinesis/prophase 2: the cytoplasm divides, the chromosomes are tightly coiled ready for the next part of division
  • metaphase 2: chromosomes align at equator of cell (notice they are not in pairs as they are in metaphase 1)
  • anaphase 2: chromatids move to opposite ends of cells
  • telophase 2: new nuclear membranes from around each new nucleus
  • cytokinesis 2: the cytoplasm divides (this is the end of the second cell division in meiosis)
  • I Can Press My Anus To Cum More Angelically Than Camilla
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43
Q

What does meiosis lead to

A

The production of four genetically different cells with only half the number of chromosomes

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44
Q

Where does meiosis/ mitosis take place

A

Ovaries and testes

Body cells except sex cells

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45
Q

How many rounds of cell division are there in meiosis/mitosis

A

2

1

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46
Q

How many cells are produced in meiosis/mitosis

A

4

2

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47
Q

What happens to the chromosome number in meiosis/mitosis

A

Halves

Stays the same

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48
Q

Are parent and daughter cells genetically identical in meiosis/mitosis

A

No

Yes

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49
Q

Are all daughter cells identical meiosis/mitosis

A

No

Yes

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50
Q

Environmental variation affects

A

Characteristics

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51
Q

Genetic variation leads to

A
  • Mutations
  • crossing over
  • independent assortment
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52
Q

Chromosomes from the mother and father might have different versions of the same type of genes ie eyes AKA

A

Alleles

53
Q

Recessive allele

A

2 copies of the allele are necessary for characteristic to be shown

54
Q

Dominant allele

A

Only 1 copy of allele is necessary for characteristic to be shown

55
Q

Genotype

A

Genetic make up (what all of the alleles present in the cell nucleus)

56
Q

Phenotype

A

The characteristic that is shown (what it looks like)

57
Q

Homozygous

A

2 identical alleles

58
Q

Heterozygous

A

2 different alleles

59
Q

Where do new alleles come from

A

Mutations/sexual reproduction

60
Q

What are mutations

A

A change in the order of bases in DNA (genetic code)

61
Q

Name a type of mutation

A

Albinism

62
Q

Change in base leads to change in …. Which causes a change in the …

A

Amino acid

Protein

63
Q

Chromosome mutation

A

Change in chromosome structure or number

64
Q

Most mutations are
Some mutations are
Very few mutations are

A

Harmful
Neutral
Beneficial

65
Q

Describe the relationship between DNA, chromosomes, genes and proteins

A
  • chromosomes are made of DNA
  • genes are regions if DNA found on chromosomes
  • each gene codes for a protein
  • within DNA 3 bases code for amino acids
66
Q

Mitosis and meiosis chromosomes both … At the beginning

A

Duplicate

67
Q

Mitosis has … Division

A

1

68
Q

Meiosis has .. Divisions

A

2

69
Q

Mitosis makes … … Daughter cells

A

2

Diploid

70
Q

Meisos makes … … Daughter cells

A

4

Haploid

71
Q

Mitosis produces … Variation

A

No

72
Q

Meiosis … Produces Variation

A

Always produces

73
Q

Mitosis is for

A

Growth and repair

74
Q

Meiosis is for

A

Gametes

Sex cells

75
Q

Human cells contain .. Chromosomes

A

46

76
Q

What are bases in DNA held together by

A

Hydrogen bonds

77
Q

Nucleotide

A

Unit of DNA made up of phosphate, a sugar and a base

78
Q

Bases

A

A and T combine

G and C combine

79
Q

The bases are in the … Of the helix

A

Centre

80
Q

The information for making a particular protein is contained within the… Of the DNA …

A

Sequence

Bases

81
Q

… Bases code for … Amino acids

A

3

1

82
Q

Proteins are responsible for certain … Ie…

A

Characteristics

Eye/hair colour

84
Q

Mitosis happens in

A

All body cells (except sex cells)
In bacteria and other microorganisms
In plants

85
Q

Why does mitosis happen

A

To make more cells (during growth)
To replace dead cells (repair)
Asexual reproduction

86
Q

The result of DNA replication

A
  • the newly formed DNA molecules contain: one strand of the original parental DNA and one new strand
  • called semi-conservative replication
87
Q

Advantages of asexual reproduction

A

No partner needed
Faster
Requires less energy

88
Q

Advantages of sexual reproduction

A

Produces variety

89
Q

What does asexual reproduction happen in

A 
Bacteria
Protoctista
Fungi 
Plants
Some animals
90
Q

What does sexual reproduction happen in

A

Fungi
Plants
Animals

91
Q

Asexual reproduction in plants: runners=

A

Overground arial stems which grow roots and develop into new plants ie strawberry

92
Q

Asexual reproduction in plants: rhizomes=

A

Underground stems which grow through the soil, and will periodically produce new roots and new above ground shoots

93
Q

Asexual reproduction in plants: tubers=

A

Underground swollen stem from which new plants may grow ie potato

94
Q

Asexual reproduction in plants: bulbs=

A

Short stems with fleshly leaves ie onion

103
Q

Mitosis leads to the production of two genetically identical cells ie

A

Clones

104
Q

Why does plant cloning work

A
  • plants contain meristem cells, which have actively under growing mitosis
  • these cells are totipotent and can differentiate into all kinds of other plant tissues
  • differentiation in plants is not permanent
105
Q

6 reasons to clone plants

A
  • to produce genetically identical copies of a plant with desirable characteristics
  • for production speed
  • produce plants in absence of pollinators
  • conserve rare/endangered species
  • to make copies of GM plants
  • produce plants that dont grow easily from seeds (orchids)
106
Q

8 steps of plant life cycle

A 
Mature flowering plant
Pollination
Fertilisation 
Embryo
Fruit and seed
Seed dispersal
Germinating seed
Seedling
107
Q

Male parts of a plant

A

Anther and filament to make stamen

Pollen grain - male gametes

108
Q

Female parts of a plant

A

Stigma style and ovary to make carpel

Ovule - female gametes

109
Q

Fertilisation in a plant

A

The fusion of male and female gametes

110
Q

3 steps of fertilisation in a plant

A

1) the pollen grain lands on the stigma
2) pollen grain develops a pollen tube which grows down the style and makes its way towards the ovary, the nucleus of the pollen grain travels down the pollen tube
3) the male nucleus enters the ovule and fuses with the female nucleus

111
Q

Fruit and seed formation steps

A
  • the fertilised ovule develops into a seed (which contains the plant embryo)
  • food store for the plant embryo to be used in germination
  • seed dispersal as fruit gets eaten by animals
  • the ovary wall develops into a fleshy fruit or hard covering in case of nuts which surrounds seeds
112
Q

Germination

A

The development of a plant from a dormant seed

113
Q

Germination steps

A
  • water intake
  • triggers enzymes to breakdown stored food
  • first root and first leaves (embryo) appear
  • seedling starts to grow
114
Q

How to genetically modify plants

A
  • the desired gene is inserted into the plasmid
  • the plasmid is introduced into plant cells cultured in a laboratory
  • the plant cells develop into full grown plants
115
Q

6 things to make use of GM plants

A
  • resistance to herbicides and pesticides
  • resistance to plant diseases
  • drought and heat tolerance
  • better balance of nutrients or additional nutrients to improve food production
  • extended shelf life of fruit and vegetables
  • production of biodegradable plastics
116
Q

What is gene therapy

A

The insertion, alteration, or removal of genes within cells to treat genetic diseases

117
Q

In genetic engineering a plasmid is … And … Using restriction enzymes. Some DNA is extracted from a human cell, insulin is cut from the DNA using the … restriction enzymes. Enzyme DNA (…) join ends of insulin gene and plasmid to create a round … DNA. Plasmid holding insulin gene functions as a vector and is used to transfer insulin gene in bacteria. … bacteria reproduce and start making insulin protein. Insulin protein … and …

A 
Extracted
Cut
Same
Ligase
Recombinant 
Transgenic
Isolated
Purified
118
Q

2 types of vector

A

Plasmid

Virus

119
Q

Plasmid

A

Short circular piece of DNA found in bacterial cells

120
Q

restriction enzyme

A

Enzyme that cuts DNA molecules at specific points

121
Q

DNA ligase

A

Enzyme that joins cut ends of DNA molecules

122
Q

Recombinant DNA

A

DNA that has been created from different sources

123
Q

Vector

A

The means of transferring DNA into an organism eg plasmid or virus

124
Q

Transgenic organism

A

An organism whose DNA has been genetically altered containing DNA from another species

125
Q

Steps of embryo splitting

A
  • sperm is taken from a bull from a high yield dairy herd
  • cow is artificially inseminated with sperm
  • zygote forms and develops into early embryo
  • embryo is split into several smaller embryos
  • embryos are placed in uterus of several foster mothers
  • genetically identical calves are born
126
Q

Steps of reproductive cloning

A
  • isolate nucleus from adult cell
  • remove nucleus from an egg cell
  • mild electric shock
  • nucleus from adult cell and empty egg cell fuse
  • mitosis produces an embryo
  • embryo implanted into sheep
  • lamb born as a clone of the adult cell sheep
127
Q

Arguments for cloning animals

A
  • increase productivity
  • conserve endangered animals
  • reproduce desirable characteristics
  • use as organ donors
  • use clones in medical trials
  • bring animals back to life that died years ago
  • to clone animals that have been genetically enginered
128
Q

Arguments against animal cloning

A
  • not reliable
  • shorter life of cloned animals
  • high risk of bacterial diseases during birth
  • likely to be born with a disability
  • morally wrong
  • expensive
  • could lead to cloning of humans
  • reduces variation
129
Q

Stem cells can…

A

Replicate themselves and differentiate into other cell types

130
Q

Totipotent stem cells

A

Can develop into any cell type

131
Q

Pluripotent stem cells

A

Can develop into most cell types

132
Q

Multipotent stem cells

A

Can develop into some cell types

133
Q

Unipotent stem cells

A

Can develop into one cell type

134
Q

Development of baby cells

A

Day 1-4 zygote (totipotent)
Day 5 morula (totipotent)
1 week blastula (pluripotent)
Foetus, baby, adult (multipotent)

135
Q

Advantage of pluripotent stem cells

A

Easily make more via mitosis so large yield obtained

136
Q

Disadvantage of pluripotent stem cells

A

Embryos are destroyed as dont have same genes as the person treated so may be rejected by the body

137
Q

Advantage if multipotent stem cells

A

Can be isolated without causing harm to the patient, use of patients own cells is possible therefore no rejection

138
Q

Disadvantage of multipotent stem cells

A

Only small numbers can be found in the body, difficult to work with

139
Q

Therapeutic cloning steps

A

-person who needs new organ or tissue
-adult cell from patient, isolate nucleus
-human ovum with nucleus removed so empty
-mild electric shock
-new pre embryo cell containing
patient DNA
-embryonic development begins
-stem cells removed from embryo and cultured to grow into required organ or tissue

Biology (21 decks)

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