Final exam review Flashcards
2 muscle types:
striated
unstriated
muscle types:
striated (types)
cardiac
skeletal
muscle types:
unstriated (types)
smooth
structure of skeletal muscle (components)
fascicles
muscle fibers
myofibrils
structure of skeletal muscle:
fascicles (what are they)
bundles of muscle fibers (muscle cells)
structure of skeletal muscle:
muscle fibers (what are they)
cells that contain myofibrils
structure of skeletal muscle:
myofibrils (what are they)
contain the contractile units of the muscle (sarcomeres)
sarcomeres (what are they)
contractile units of the muscle
sarcomere contraction:
myosin filaments (characteristics)
thick
motor proteins
sarcomere contraction:
actin filaments (characteristics)
thin
sarcomere contraction:
H bands (what are they)
during sarcomere contraction, H bands ___
distance b/n actin filaments
shorten/disappear
sarcomere contraction:
I bands (what are they)
during sarcomere contraction, I bands ___
distance b/n Z disks and myosin filaments
shorten
during sarcomere contraction:
the distance b/n Z disks ___
shortens
sarcomere contraction:
a full contraction ___ muscle length by ___
shortens
20%
types of skeletal muscle fibers:
slow-twitch
fast-twitch
types of skeletal muscle fibers:
slow-twitch (characteristics)
generate full contractions more slowly but are resistant to fatigue
types of skeletal muscle fibers:
fast-twitch (characteristics)
generate full contractions quickly but fatigue quickly
types of skeletal muscle fibers:
the % of fast or slow-twitch fibers in any given muscles ___
varies
muscle energy generation:
how many ATP supply systems are there?
what are they?
3
immediate system
glycolytic system
oxidative system
muscle energy generation:
immediate system (what does it do, how long does it last?)
uses existing ATP supplies and ATP regenerated by the enzyme Creatine kinase using phosphocreatine as a phosphate source
lasts 30 seconds
muscle energy generation:
glycolytic system (what does it do, how long does it last?)
metabolizes readily available carbohydrates to regenerate ATP
lasts 10-15 minutes
muscle energy generation:
oxidative system (what does it do, how long does it last?)
metabolizes stored carbohydrates and fats to generate ATP
lasts until muscle failure
circulatory system:
what are the key components?
muscular pump – the heart
circulatory fluid:
- blood
- hemolymph
series of conduits – vasculature (vessels)
circulatory system:
blood (what does it contain)
red blood cells
hemoglobin
circulatory system:
hemolymph (what does it contain)
hemocytes
hemocyanin
categories of circulatory systems:
open circulatory system
closed circulatory system
categories of circulatory systems:
open circulatory system (characteristics)
circulatory fluid exits the vessels, diffuses thru the tissues, then returns to the heart thru openings called ostia
categories of circulatory systems:
closed circulatory system (characteristics)
circulatory fluid never exits the vessels
heart chambers (what are they)
atria
ventricles
heart chambers:
atria (what are they)
chambers that receive blood and send it to ventricles
heart chambers:
ventricles (what are they)
chambers that receive blood from atria and send it either to the lungs or out to the body for circulation
differences in vertebrate hearts:
fish (how many chambers in heart and what are the chambers?)
2-chambered heart
1 atrium
1 ventricle
differences in vertebrate hearts:
amphibians and some reptiles (how many chambers in heart and what are the chambers?)
3-chambered heart
2 atria
1 ventricle
differences in vertebrate hearts:
mammals and some reptiles (how many chambers in heart and what are the chambers?)
4-chambered heart
2 atria
2 ventricles
overview of circulation:
pulmonary circuit:
heart –> lungs –> heart
overview of circulation:
systemic circuit:
heart –> body –> heart
overview of circulation:
how does blood flow?
heart –> arteries –> arterioles –> capillaries –> venules –> veins –> heart
overview of circulation:
arteries and arterioles (what are they and what do they do)
arteries (large)
arterioles (small)
carry oxygenated blood from heart to capillaries
overview of circulation:
capillaries (what are they and what do they do)
vessels that deliver oxygen/nutrients to the tissues of the body and carry away CO2/other waste products
overview of circulation:
venules and veins (what are they and what do they do)
venules (small)
veins (large)
carry deoxygenated blood from capillaries back to the heart
directing blood flow:
precapillary sphincters (PCS) (what are they and what do they do)
smooth muscles that regulate blood flow into capillary beds
directing blood flow:
precapillary sphincters (PCS):
contracted PCS (what does it cause)
limits blood flow into a capillary bed
directing blood flow:
precapillary sphincters (PCS):
relaxed PCS (what does it cause)
increases blood flow into a capillary bed
allows blood to be directed where it’s needed most
___ varies in different vessels
blood pressure
blood pressure varies in different vessels:
in order from highest to lowest blood pressure:
arteries > arterioles > capillaries > venules > veins
how does body prevent back flow of blood b/n muscle contractions?
skeletal muscle contractions help push blood thru veins and 1-way veinous valves
vascular tissues in plants (what are they)
xylem
phloem
vascular tissues:
xylem (what does it do)
transports water and minerals upward from the roots to the rest of the plant
vascular tissues:
phloem (what does it do)
transports nutrients from the photosynthetic areas of the plants, as well as signaling molecules, to the rest of the plant
tissues of the root:
epidermis (what is it and what does it do)
outer layer of cells that form a boundary b/n the plant and the external environment
tissues of the root:
root hair (what is it and what does it do)
absorbent outgrowths of the epidermis (damage causes transplant shock)
tissues of the root:
cortex (what is it and what does it do)
cellular layer b/n the epidermis and the endodermis
conducts water and can be used for storage
tissues of the root:
endodermis (what is it and what does it do)
a water tight inner layer of cells surrounded by the casparian strip
tissues of the root:
casparian strip (what is it and what does it do)
a waxy coating that surrounds the cells of the endodermis
a water-tight seal
tissues of the root:
pericycle (what is it and what does it do)
a layer of cells b/n the endodermis and the xylem
structural support, conducts water
tissues of the root:
xylem (what is it and what does it do)
vascular tissue that transports water and minerals upward to the rest of the plant
how water travels to the xylem (2 ways):
apoplastic transport
symplastic transport
how water travels to the xylem:
apoplastic transport (what occurs)
water can travel between root cells
how water travels to the xylem:
symplastic transport (what occurs)
water can travel through root cells using cell-cell channels called plasmodesmata
how water travels to the xylem:
water can travel by ___ or ___ transport through root tissues until it reaches the ___
apoplastic or symplastic transport
casparian strip
how water travels to the xylem:
because of the ___, water must travel through the cells of the ___
casparian strip
endodermis
transpiration
tension/cohesion model
sarcomere contraction
sliding filament model of sarcomere contraction
purpose of homeostasis:
organisms must keep a set of internal conditions w/in their optimal ranges called set points
homeostasis (what is it)
keeping internal body conditions w/in their set points
general mechanism of homeostasis:
1) changes in internal conditions are detected by ___
sensors
general mechanism of homeostasis:
2) information is sent to ___
integrating centers AKA comparators (brain or glands)
general mechanism of homeostasis:
3) to maintain set points:
comparators signal to effectors
general mechanism of homeostasis:
effectors (what are they)
organs or tissues that respond to the comparator and act to bring conditions back to the set point
general mechanism of homeostasis:
examples of homeostasis
thermoregulation by the hypothalamus
pancreas releases insulin to lower blood sugar levels and glucagon to raise blood sugar levels
general mechanism of homeostasis:
negative feedback loop (what happens when conditions return to the set point)
when conditions return to the set point:
comparator stops signaling
effectors stop responding
endocrine system (definition)
glands of the body that secrete hormones
hormones (definition)
signaling molecules released into circulation for organism-wide signaling (endocrine signaling)
hormones:
classes:
peptide hormones
amino acid hormones
steroid hormones
hormones:
classes:
peptide hormones:
- what are they
- what do they do
- examples
proteins, non steroidal, hydrophilic
bind to membrane bound receptors
insulin
hormones:
classes:
amino acid derivatives:
- what are they
- what do they do
- examples
modified signal amino acids, non steroidal, hydrophilic
bind to membrane bound receptors
melatonin (modified tryptophan)
hormones:
classes:
steroid hormones:
- what are they
- what do they do
- examples
derivatives of cholesterol, hydrophobic
bind to intracellular receptors
testosterone and estrogen
proportional response (definition)
comparators release hormone amounts that are proportional to how far away conditions are from the set point
innate immune system:
characteristics
… line of defense
…pathogens, attacks pathogens….
focus of attack is…
activates…adaptable
1st line of defense
blocks entry of pathogens, attacks pathogens that get in
focus of attack is general
activates immediately but is not adaptable
innate immune system:
components
physical barriers (ex. skin, epithelial cells that cover internal surfaces)
chemical barriers (ex. tears, mucus, stomach acid)
cellular defenses (ex. phagocytes)
innate immune system:
cells of the innate immune system:
phagocytes (specific type of leukocyte)
phagocytes that have pattern recognition receptors
inflammatory response (definition)
injured or infected cells release cytokines
inflammatory response:
cytokines (what are they)
signaling molecules promote an immune response (inflammation)
inflammatory response:
hallmark signs of the inflammatory response
redness, warmth, swelling (edema), pain
adaptive immune system (characteristics)
can…to attack…
…activation time…
response is….
it has…
can adapt to attack new (previously unseen) pathogens
slower activation time (days)
response is highly specific
it has a memory
adaptive immune system (components)
antibodies
B cells
T cells
antibodies (definition)
proteins of the immune system that stick to the epitopes of antigens
epitopes (definition)
parts of antigen molecules bound by antibodies
non-self antigens (definition)
toxins/macromolecules on pathogens
self antigens (definition)
substances that are supposed to be in the body or macromolecules on the surface of cells of the body
antibody structure:
tetramer
variable regions of the antibody
constant (invariable) regions of the antibody
antibody structure:
tetramer:
2 light and 2 heavy chain proteins held together by disulfide bridges
antibody structure:
variable regions of the antibody:
bind to epitopes
antibody structure:
constant (invariable) regions of the antibody:
recognized by receptors on phagocytes
antibody structure:
antibodies can circulate ___ or be attached to a ___
freely
B cell
antibody functions:
the binding of antibodies to a ___ marks that pathogen for destruction by ___
pathogen
phagocytes
antibody functions:
the binding of antibodies to pathogens also blocks pathogens from entering into ___
cells and tissues
cells of the adaptive immune system:
B cells (what do they do)
make antibodies
activate other cells of the immune system
cells of the adaptive immune system:
B cells activation (what occurs)
increases production/secretion of its antibody
begins cell division (clonal expansion)
activates other cells of the immune system
cells of the adaptive immune system:
T cells (what do they do)
activate other immune cells
can recognize and kill cells infected with pathogens
2 kinds of adaptive immune responses (what are they)
primary adaptive immune response
secondary adaptive immune response
primary adaptive immune response:
what is it
response time
what about memory B cells
the first encounter with a new pathogen
slow response (4-7 days)
memory B cells remain in large numbers after the first infection is over
secondary (adaptive) immune response:
what is it
what about its memory B cells
response time
the next encounter w/ a pathogen
this time numerous memory B cells are present
response is fast and more effective
vaccinations (definition)
vaccinations are when antigens from a pathogen are safely introduced into the body (usually by injection)
vaccinations:
mode of action:
vaccinations cause a primary adaptive immune response –> leads to the production of memory B cells
exposure to the pathogen in nature will cause a secondary immune response –> quickly destroy the pathogen
booster vaccination (what does it do)
reintroduces antigens to the immune system after immunity has waned
immunological tolerance (definition)
the immune system does not attack self-antigens
negative selection (definition)
immune cells that react against self-antigens are killed during development
what causes autoimmune disorders?
a failure of negative selection would contribute to the development of an autoimmune disorder
allergies (what are they)
exaggerated immune responses to certain antigens (allergens)
evasion of the immune system by pathogens:
antigen switching – pathogens change their surface antigens
antigenic drift – thru mutation during replication, viruses can alter the epitopes on their surface antigens
