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Anatomy & Physiology II - Lecture > Final Exam > Flashcards

Final Exam Flashcards

1
Q

What is the driving force for water intake?

A

thirst

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2
Q

Which compartment holds the largest percentage of the fluid of the body?

A

Intracellular

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3
Q

Which of the following hormones is involved in water and electrolyte balance?

A

ADH

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4
Q

Which of the following would inhibit sodium reabsorption in the collecting ducts in the kidneys?

A

Atrial natriuretic peptide

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5
Q

Which organs are the long-term acid base regulatory organ?

A

kidneys

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6
Q

Which acid-base imbalance would be caused by a reduced amount of CO2 in the blood, such as in nervous hyperventilation?

A

Respiratory alkalosis

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7
Q

What is the effect of hypoventilation on pH?

A

Respiratory acidosis

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8
Q

Which age group most commonly has fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base issues?

A

Infants

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9
Q

Which hormone affects blood sodium levels?

A

Aldosterone

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10
Q

What type of water imbalance increases the amount of fluid in ALL compartments?

A

Hypotonic dehydration

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11
Q

Which of the following buffering systems is the rapid, first line defense to correct acidosis or alkalosis?

A

Chemical buffering systems such as the bicarbonate buffer system

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12
Q

Where is the majority of potassium found in the body? In which fluid compartment?

A

Intracellular

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13
Q

True or false? There are specific osmoreceptors that monitor solute concentration in body fluids.

A

True

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14
Q

Which of the following conditions DOES NOT stimulate the thirst center in the hypothalamus?

A

Low blood pH

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15
Q

What condition may be the result of severe, uncontrolled diabetes or severe diarrhea?

A

Metabolic acidosis

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16
Q

Atrial natriuretic peptide is a hormone that is made in the atria of the heart. It functions to:

A

Reduce blood pressure and blood volume by inhibiting sodium and water retention

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17
Q

Which of the following is considered to be a primary sex organ in the male?

A

testes

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18
Q

What is the function of the interstitial cells of the testes?

A

site of testosterone production

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19
Q

Which accessory gland in the male produces most of the fluid that makes up semen?

A

Seminal vesicle

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20
Q

What is produced in the primary sex organs of females?

A

Ova

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21
Q

How many diploid chromosomes do humans have?

A

46

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22
Q

Describe Metaphase I

A

Homologous pairs align along the cell’s equator at center of spindle

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23
Q

What is the major difference between mitosis and meiosis?

A

Mitosis yields identical daughter cells and meiosis yields genetically different daughter cells

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24
Q

The “nurse” cells that do not produce sperm themselves but instead aid in the development of the sperm are

A

Sustentacular or Sertoli cells

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25
Q

The name of the structure that develops in the site of the ruptured follicle, which produces progesterone is the

A

Corpus luteum

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26
Q

The term that refers to the rupture of the mature follicle, releasing the secondary oocyte is

A

Ovulation

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27
Q

Where is the secondary oocyte typically fertilized?

A

In the ampulla of the oviduct

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28
Q

There are two main layers of the uterine lining, or endometrium. Which layer in unresponsive to ovarian hormones and is responsible for forming the new layer above it after menstruation?

A

Stratum basalis

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29
Q

What happens to the secondary oocyte as it travels down the oviduct if it meets and is penetrated by a sperm?

A

It completes Meiosis II to produce the ovum and a second polar body

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30
Q

The release of FSH and LH in both sexes stimulated by the release of ____________ from the hypothalamus.

A

GnRH (gonadotropin releasing hormone)

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31
Q

Which hormone spikes to cause ovulation in the female?

A

LH

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32
Q

During the proliferative phase of the uterus, what is occurring?

A

The stratum functionalis (functional layer) is generated (built up) and progesterone receptors in endometrium increase in number, stimulated by estrogen

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33
Q

True or False? Mammary glands are modified sweat glands.

A

True

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34
Q

Which of the following terms could be used to describe the fertilized ovum from its beginning until birth?

A

Conceptus

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35
Q

What is the definition of when fertilization actually occurs?

A

When the sperm’s DNA combines with the ova’s DNA

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36
Q

What is the name of the cellular structure that acutally implants in the uterus?

A

Blastocyst

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37
Q

Implantation typically begins at _________ after ovulation

A

6-7 days

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38
Q

Which hormone of pregnancy is secreted by the placenta as early as the first week post-fertilization, and is elevated until about 2 months after fertilization, when it drops off quickly?

A

HCG

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39
Q

The placenta is fully formed and functional by which month after fertilization?

A

3rd month

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40
Q

Which of the four extraembryonic membranes listed below forms part of the digestive tube and is the source of the earliest blood cells and blood vessels?

A

Yolk Sak

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41
Q

Which embryonic layer gives rise to the epithelial linings of glands and the digestive tract?

A

Endoderm

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42
Q

Which embryonic layer gives rise to the skin and nervous tissue of the embryo / fetus?

A

Ectoderm

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43
Q

The end of the embryonic period occurs at about

A

8 weeks

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44
Q

Which of the following is a normal anatomical or physiological change associated with pregnancy?

A

Nausea due to elevated levels of estrogen and progesterone

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45
Q

During the last few weeks of pregnancy, which hormone is secreted by the fetus that stimulates the placenta to secrete more estrogen?

A

Cortisol

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46
Q

Which two hormones listed below are the primary powerful stimulators of uterine contraction?

A

Oxytocin

Prostaglandin

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47
Q

Which is the first stage of labor?

A

Dilation

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48
Q

The mammary glands produce a special secretion for the first 2-3 days, which is yellowish, rich in vitamin A, protein and antibodies. What is the name of this special secretion?

A

Colostrum

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49
Q

The hormone that stimulates milk PRODUCTION by the breast tissue is

A

prolactin

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50
Q

What are the 2 major water compartments in the body?

A

Intracellular Fluid Compartment

Extracelllular Fluid Compartment

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51
Q

How much fluid is found in the ICF?

A

25 L

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52
Q

What type of fluid is found in the ECF? How much fluid is this?

A

Plasma - 3L
Interstitial Fluid - 12 L
Other Elements

Roughly 15L total

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53
Q

What are the major cations and ions for the ICF?

A

Cation: K+
Anion: HPO4 2-

54
Q

What are the major cations and ions for the ECF?

A

Cation: Na+
Anion: Cl- HCO3-

55
Q

How does water move between compartments? What does each indicate?

A

Osmotic Pressure - willingness to move

Hyrostatic Pressure - pushing pressure

56
Q

What is negative fluid balance?

A

Too little water/dehydration

ECF Fluid loss

57
Q

What is hypotonic hydration?

A

Too much water, salty cells

Water intoxication treated with hypertonic saline

58
Q

What are buffers?

A

Chemicals that slow pH changes

59
Q

What are the 3 main groups of buffer systems? Which is the first line of defense? Which acts the quickets?

A

Chemical Buffer Systems - 1st line of defense, fastest
Brain Stem Respiratory
Renal Mechanism

60
Q

What are the chemical buffer systems ranked from most to least important?

A

Bicarbonate
Phosphate
Protein

61
Q

What is the bicarbonate buffer system/

A

Buffers ICF and ECF

Acts rapidly by releasing or binding H+ ion

62
Q

What is the role of the respiratory center?

A

Eliminate CO32
Triggers to increase rate when in acidosis

Depresses rate when low CO2

63
Q

What is the role of the renal mechanism?

A

Depends on secretion of H+ in the PCT and collecting duct

64
Q

What organs play a role in acid-base regulation? How?

A

kidneys,

Kidneys - remove excess H+ from blood

65
Q

What organ is responsible for balancing electrolytes?

A

kidneys

66
Q

Metabolic acidosis

A

pH is too acidic

Too much alcohol
Loss of HCO3 (bicarbonate)
Lactic acid build up to kidney failure, shock, ketosis

67
Q

Metabolic alkalosis

A

Rising blood pH and HCO3-

Excessive vommitting and loss of acid contents, too many antacids

68
Q

What does a pH below 7 lead to?

A

CNS depression
Coma
Death

69
Q

What does a pH above 7.8 lead to?

A 
Excitation of nervous system, 
muscle tetany
Nervousness
convulsions
respiratory arrest
death
70
Q

Respiratory acidosis

A

Too much CO2

Increases rate/depth to eliminate CO2, causing pH to rise

71
Q

Respiratory alkalosis

A

Too little CO2

Depresses respiratory rate/depth to retain CO2 and decrease pH

72
Q

Main hormones affecting sodium balance

A 
aldosterone
atrial natriuretic peptide
estrogen
progesterone
glucocorticoids
73
Q

Affect of Aldosterone on Sodium balance

  • What triggers
  • Speed
A

Promotes sodium reabsorption in PCT

Triggered my angiotensin II in response to low blood pressure and osmolality

Very slow

74
Q

Affect of ANP on Sodium balance

A

Released in response to tissue stretch (high blood pressre) to decrease blood pressure

Reduces ADH, renin and aldosterone and angiotinsin II production

Increase excretion of Na+ and H20

75
Q

Affect of estrogen on sodium balance

A

Increase NaCL reabsorption

76
Q

Affect of Progesterone on sodium balance

A

Decrease sodium reabsorption

77
Q

Glucocorticoids

A

Increase sodium reabsorption and promoting edema

78
Q

What are electrolytes?

A

Salts
Acids
Bases

Fluid movement
neuromuscular excitability
secretory activity
membrane permeability

79
Q

What is normal body pH

A

7.35-7.45

80
Q

What is the role of ADH?

A

Save water

Aquaporins inserted into cell membrane of collecting ducts

less adh - dilute urine
more adh - concentrated urine

81
Q

Identify the primary sex organs in male and female

A

Male - testes

Female - ovaries

82
Q

Explain which glands contribute to seminal fluid

A

Seminal Vesicles - 70%
Prostate
Cowper’s Glands/Bulbourethral
Semen

83
Q

Where are sperm produced?

A

seminiferous tubule

84
Q

3 phases of sperm production

A

mitosis
meiosis
spermiogenesis

85
Q

How are sperm transported?

A

Testicular fluid secreted by nurse cells into lumen

86
Q

Where are sperm stored and matured?

A

epididymis running along side testicle

87
Q

What cells produce testosterone? Where are they found?

A

Leydig interstitial Cells found adjacent to seminiferous tubules in testes

88
Q

What are the effects of GnRH release?

A

Stimulate secretion of FSH and LH from pituitary gland

89
Q

Role of FSH

A

M -increase spermatogenic testosterone receptors

F- Stimulates grown of eggs and regulates menstrual cycle

90
Q

Role of LH

A

M - stimulates release of testosterone from interstital cells

F- ovulation

91
Q

What hormone causes gonadotropin release? Where does it come from?

A

GnRH from hypothalamus

92
Q

What are gonadotropins?

A

regulate ovarian and testicular function

93
Q

Know the steps and the end result of meiosis.

A

prophase,
metaphase,
anaphase
telophase

final product: 4 haploid daughter cells

94
Q

Multiple names for nurse cells

A

Sustanticular

Sertolli

95
Q

What do nurse cells do?

A

Aid in development of sperm by

1) Provide nutrients and signals to dividing cells
2) Dispose of excess cytoplasm during spermiogenesis
3) Secrete fluid into lumen for sperm transportation

96
Q

Explain the development of the oocyte – especially the stages at which Meiosis is paused and when it finishes.

A

Oogonia
Primary - arrest in Prophase 1
After puberty, secondary oocyte + polar body produced, 2ndary arrests in metaphase II and then produces ovum and second polar body

97
Q

When does a primary oocyte arrest in meiosis I?

A

prophase 1

98
Q

When does a secondary oocyte arrest?

A

metaphase II

99
Q

Layers of the endometrium, which one is shed? When one is maintained?

A

Inner stratum functionalis - responds to hormones and shed

outer stratum basalis - not shed, not responsive to hormones, becomes new functonalis

100
Q

Identify the 3 phases of the menstrual or uterine cycle

A

Mentstrual
Proliferative
Secretory

101
Q

What happens during the menstrual cycle?

A

hormones at lowest
Gonadotrpins rise
Stratum functionalis is shed, flow begins

102
Q

What happens during the proliferative cycle?

A

Estrogen promotes growth of new stratum functionalis

Increases progesterone receptors in endometrium

Increase glands

103
Q

What happens during secretory?

A

Progesterone is dominant
Development of endometrial lining
Secretion of Glycogen
Mucus Plug formed

104
Q

When does ovulation typically occur in the menstrual cycle?

A

Day 14, LH surge

105
Q

What STDs are bacterial?

A

Gonorrhea
Syphillis
Chlamydia

106
Q

What STDs are viral?

A

Genital Warts

Genital Herpes

107
Q

What is the most common STD in the US?

A

Chlamydia

108
Q

When and where does fertilization usually occur? What is happening at the moment of fertilization?

A

Ampulla of the oviduct

Sperm chromosomes combine with 2ndary oocyte to form fertilized egg/zygote

109
Q

Zygote

A

diploid cell

fertilized ovum

110
Q

Morula

A

solid ball of cells resulting from division of a fertilized ovum

111
Q

Blastocyst

A

Fertilized egg on day 5 or 6, rapidly dividing ball of cells

Outer portion becomes placenta

Inner becomes embryo

112
Q

What is relaxin, where is it made, and what does it do?

A

Hormone that causes relaxation of pelvic and pubic ligaments

made in corpus leutum

113
Q

What is the survival time for the secondary oocyte once ovulated?

A

12-24 hours

114
Q

How long can sperm survive in the female reproductive tract?

A

24-48 hours

115
Q

Gestation Period

A

Last menstrual period to birth

116
Q

Embryonic Stage

A

conceptus-week 8

117
Q

What does the endoderm produce?

A

Epithelial linings of GI, respiratory and uriogenital tract

118
Q

What does the mesoderm produce?

A

muscle cells

organs

119
Q

What does the ectoderm prudce?

A

skin/nervous system

120
Q

Who produces HCG?

A

placental membrane

121
Q

3 stages of labor

A

dilation
expulsion
placental

122
Q

What happens during dilation?

A

Longest period

Contractions start weak and grow strong

Cervix thins and dilates to 10 cm

Engagement happens

123
Q

What happens during expulsion

A

Strong contractions 2-3 minutes, lasting 60 seconds

urge to push

delivery of baby

124
Q

What happens during placental?

A

Contractions continue for 30 minutes after birth to produce placenta

125
Q

Role of Amnion

A

Becomes transparent sak filled with fluid for protection

126
Q

Position of Yolk Sak and Role

A

Hangs from ventral surface of embryo

Forms part of digestive system

Gives rise to blood vessels and cells, germ cells

127
Q

Allantois

A

Sticks out from yolk sak

Base of umbillical chord

Forms urinary bladder

128
Q

Chorion

A

Forms placenta

Encloses embryonic body and membranes

Site of gas and nutrient exchange

129
Q

Which hormones stimulate the powerful uterine contractions of labor?

A

Oxytocin

Prostaglandin

130
Q

Which hormone stimulates milk production and which hormone stimulates milk let down?

A

Production - prolactin

Milk letdown - oxytocin

131
Q

Describe the hormonal signals produced by the fetus that initiate labor.

A

Fetus produces cortisol during last few weeks which stimulates production of oxytocin receptors on myometrium

Produces surfactant protein A to soften cervix

Oxytocin/prostaglandins

Anatomy & Physiology II - Lecture (16 decks)

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