Final exam Flashcards
How is anatomy different from physiology?
Why do some schools study them together and some separate?
How do we study anatomy? physiology?
- *Anatomy** is study of bodies structure (looking at it, describing it)
- *Physiology** is study of bodies process of function (how does it function, grow, repair, etc)
Some schools study them separately but its important to know how structure relates to function
We can study anatomy by looking at structure, microscopes, xrays, etc. We can study physiology by observation, expieriments, measurement, etc
What are the different branches of the fields of study of anatomy and physiology?
- *Anatomy**
- Developmental (structural changes from concept to adult)
- Embryology (structural changes from concept to 8wks)
- Cytology (structural featurs of cells)
- Histology (Tissues)
- Gross anatomy (Structures visualized w/o microscope)
- *Physiology**
- Cell physiology (how cells function)
- Systemic physiology (whole organ system & processes)
- Neurophysiology (nervous system)
- Cardiovascular physiology (heart & blood vessels)
- Pathology (study of disease)
- Exercise physioloy (changes during excersice)
What are the levels of organization of the human body?
- Chemical level (atoms form molecules)
- Cell level (molecules form organelles)
- Tissue level (similar cells form tissues)
- Organ level (different tissues make organs)
- Organ system
- Organism
What are the 11 organ systems?
Integumentary system - protection, vit D
Skeletal system - bones, ligaments, joints, cartilage
Muscular system - muscles, tendons
Lymphatic system - removes foreign substances, fights disease
Respiratory system - regulate blood pH
Digestive system
Nervous system
Endocrine system -regulate metabolism, growth, reproduction
Cardiovascular system
Urinary system
Reproductive system
What are the 6 charateristics of life?
- *Organization:** interrelationships between parts of organism and how they interact to function (if we are missing an organ we could die)
- *Metabolism:** all chemical reactions of the body. Breaking down molecules and building others. Energy transferred from molecule to molecule - FOOD
Responsiveness: sense changes in environment and adjust
Growth: in size/number of cells
- *Development:** changes in organism over time
- Differentiation: change from general to specific
- Morphogenesis: Change in shape of tissues, organs
Reproduction: New cells or organisms
What is homeostatis?
What are the components of regulating homeostatis?
Maintaining constant internal environment, despite changes in external environment
Negative and postive feedback
(Receptors, integrating center, effector)
What is a negative feedback loop?
- Receptors monitor value/environment
- Send info to control center
- Control center compares value to set point range
- If there has been a deviation from set point, control center sends an effector to respond
- Effector responds
- Produces a response that maintains homeostasis
What is the difference between positive and negative feedback?
Negative feedback responds to a deviation away from homeostasis to bring body back to homeostasis
Postive feedback responds to a deviation from homeostasis by pushing/amplifies changes to bring body back to homeostasis (birth)
What is anatomical position?
What is supine?
Prone?
What are the 8 directional terms?
Standing straight up, looking straight ahead with palms facing forward
Supine - laying face up
Prone - laying on back
*medial, lateral, superior, inferior, deep, superficial, posterior, anterior
Name the quadrants
Right upper / Left upper
Right lower / Left lower
Right hypochondriac region / Epigastric / Left hypochondriac
Right lumbar / Umbilical / Left lumbar
Right iliac / Hypogastric / Left iliac
What are the organs in each region?
If someone was stabbed in upper right quad, what organs might be affected?
If someone was impaled in their left lower, what organs could be involved?
*liver, gallbladder, lrg intestine, small intestine
*Sm & lrg intestine, bladder
What do the following planes cut into the body?
Coronal/frontal?
Sagittal/medial?
Transverse?
Oblique?
Longitudional of organ?
Transverse/cross section of organ?
Coronal/frontal - Divides body into anterior and posterior
Sagittal/medial - Right or left
Transverse - Superior or inferior
Oblique - diagonal, at an angle other than 90 degree
Longitudonial - Length wise section
Transverse/cross - 90 degree
Where is the thoracic cavity?
What cavities are in thoracic cavity?
Abdominiopelvic cavity?
Thoracic - diaphram up
- *Pleural cavity R&L -** contains lungs
- *Mediastinum** - middle, contains everything else except lungs
- *Pericardial cavity** - heart
Abdominopelvic - diaphram down (intestines, reproductive organs, etc)
What is serous membrane?
What organs are retroperitoneal? (not covered in perietal membrane - outer layer)
Double walled memebranes that secrete watery fluid for lubrication and reduce friction of organs.
Viseral layer (inner) and Parietal layer (outer)
Kidneys, adrenal glands, pancreas, some intestines, urinary bladder
What are the 4 types of tissues?
*Different based on function, cell type, extracellular matrix
Epithelial
Nervous
Muscle
Smooth
What are the embryonic germ layers and what comes from each layer?
Endoderm - lining of digestive
Mesoderm - tissue, muscle, bones, blood vessels
Ectoderm - Skin and nervous system (neuroectoderm)
What are the common characteristics of epithelial tissue?
Consists almost entirely of cells, little ground substance
Covers body surfaces (lines organs/body cavities) and forms glands
has apical surface
cellular junction
basement membrane
avascular - needs connective tissue under to supply nutrients
regenerates well
How do we classify epithelial tissue?
Shape - cubodial, columnar, squamous
Number of layers - simple, stratified, pseudostratified
Transitional - stretched looks squamous, when not stretched looks cuboidal/columnar
What are the functions for each type of epithelial tissue?
Simple?
Stratified?
Cubodial?
Columnar?
Lamina propria?
Simple - diffusion, filtration, secretion, absorbtion
Stratified - protection
Squamous - protection and diffusion
Cubodial and columnar - Secretion and aborption. *may include goblet cells
Lamina propria - loose or DICT that has different cells and blood vessels to nourish epithelial layer
Where in the body can you find the following
Simple squamous
Simple cubodial
Simple columnar
Stratified squamous
Pseudostratified
Transitional
Simple squamous - lining of blood vessels & heart, alveoili of lungs, body cavities
Simple cubodial - Kidney tubules, glands and their ducts, choroid plexus of brain, lining of bronchoils of lungs
Simple columnar - glands and ducts, uterine tubes, gullbladder, lining of stomach and intestines,
Stratified squamous - Keratinized -Skin. Non keratinized -mouth, throat, anus, vagina
Pseudostratified - lining of nasal cavity, auditory tubes, bronchi of lungs
Transitional - urinary bladder
What are the cell junctions that connect the epithelial cells together?
Desmosomes - disc shaped embedded in wall of cell membrane/ places of mechanical stress
Hemidesmosomes - half of desmosome, attached to basement membrane to anchor
Tight junctions - hold cells together and form a permeability bearer so things dont get through
Adhesion belt - holds cells together, not as strong as desmosomes
Gap junction - protein channels, looks like pores, allows intercellular communication
What is an edocrine gland?
What is an exocrine gland?
How are exocrine glands classified?
- *Endocrine gland** - no open contact with exterior, no ducts, produce hormones / made of epithelial tissue
- *Exocrine gland** - Open contact with exterior, ducts
Exocrine glands are classified by their structure or mode of secretion.
- *Structure :** Unicellular or multicellular
- *Secretion:** Merocrine/Eccrine - exocytosis -release through vesicles on side of cell
- Aprocrine* - pinch off portion of cell (breast feeding)
- Holocrine* - dying cell becomes secretory product
What are the common characteristics of connective tissue?
Found in every organ / Underneath epithelial tissue
Consists of cells separated by extracellular matrix
Enclose and separate other tissues
Connecting tissues to one another
Support/movement
Storing compounds
Cushioning/insulating
Protecting
What is areolar connective tissue?
Fiber types
Cells?
Found?
loose connective tissue
Fibers: elastin, collagen
Cells: fibroblasts, macrophages, lymphocytes
Found: epithelial sits on top, packing between glands, muscles, ners attaches skin to underlying tissues
What is adipose connective tissue?
Fiber types
Cells?
Found?
Loose connective tissue
Fiber types: Lipid
Cells: adipocytes
Found: Mammary glands, around kidneys
What is reticular connective tissue?
Fiber types
Cells?
Found?
loose connective tissue
Fiber type: Reticular
cells:Leukocytes
Found: within lymph nodes, spleen, bone marrow
What is Dense regular connective tissue?
Function?
Fiber types?
Cells?
Found?
Dense connective tissue
Pulled in one direction
Fiber type: tigh bundles of collagen fibers
Cells: Fiberblast
Locations: Tendons (muscles to bone) & ligaments
What is Dense irregular connective tissue?
Function?
Fiber types?
Cells?
Found?
Dense connective tissue
Withstanding stretch in all directions
Fibers: Collagen
Cells: fibroblast
Found: dermis of skin, organ capsules
What is Hyaline cartilage?
Function?
Fiber types?
Cells?
Found?
Cartilage
Function: allows growth of long bones, allows rigidity with some flexibility, forms flexible articulating surfaces
Fiber types: Collagen fibers
Cells: chondrocytes
Found: Costal cartilage of ribs, ariculating surface of bones, embryonic skeleton
What is Fibrocartilage?
Function?
Fiber types?
Cells?
Found?
Cartilage
Function: Somewhat flexible, able to withstand pressure, connects structures
Fiber types: Collagen
Cells: Chondrocytes
Found: Intervertebral discs, articular discs
What is Compact bone?
Function?
Fiber types?
Cells?
Found?
Bone
Function: Provides strenths and support
Fiber type: Hard bony matrix
Cells: Osteocytes in lacuna
Found: Outer portion of bones, shaft of long bones
*OSTEON
*CANALICULI
*LAMALLAE
What is Spongy bone?
Function?
Fiber types?
Cells?
Found?
Bone
Function: Provide strenth and support without the weight
Fiber types: Network of trabeculae with spaces inbetween
Cells: Osteocytes in lacunae
Found: Interior of bones, ends of long bones
What is Blood?
Function?
Fiber types?
Cells?
Found?
What forms blood cells?
Blood - connective tissue
Function: Transports oxygen, carbon dixode, nutrients, waste, temp regulation, protection from infection
Fiber types: Plasma
Cells: Red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets
Found: Within blood vessels
Homeopoetic tissue: Red / Yellow bone marrow
Skeletal Muscle
Function?
Found?
Cell shape?
Striations?
Control?
Multinucleate?
Moves body
Attached to bones
Long cylindracal
Yes
Yes
Yes
Cardiac Muscle
Function?
Found?
Cell shape?
Striations?
Control?
Multinucleate?
Major force for moving blood
in heart
Cylindrical cells that branch
Yes - Striated
Involuntary
Single nucleus
*IINTERCULATED DISC
*GAP JUNCTIONS
Smooth Muscle
Function?
Found?
Cell shape?
Striations?
Control?
Multinucleate?
Moves food through digestive tract, regulates blood vessel diameter, changes in pupil size, contracts glands, moves hair
Found: Walls of hallow organs, blood vessels, glands, eyes, skin
Cell shape: Spindle shaped
Striations: no
Control: no
Multinucleate: Single
*HAS GAP JUNCTIONS
Nervous Tissue
Function?
Found?
Cells?
Function: Transmit infro to and from CNS
Found: Brain, spinal cord, ganglia
Cells: Neurons, neurogila
What are the different types of membranes>?
Mucous: lines cavities that open to the outside of the body. Secretes mucous. Found in respiratory, digestive, reproductive
Serous: Lines cavities not open to exterior. Pericardial, pleural, peritoneal
Synovial: Line freely movable joints, produce fluid rich in hylaronic acid
What kind of cells are in the epidermis?
Keratinocytes - produce keratin / strength
Melanocytes - Melanin
Langerhans cells - immune / present antigens to lymphocytes
Merkel cells - detect light touch
What are the layers of epidermis and what happens at each layer?
Stratum corneum - 25+ layers dead/cornified cells
Stratum lucidum - only in thick skin, Clear
Stratum ganulosum - Contains keratohylain protein, cells die
Stratum Spinosum - limited cell division, desmosomes
Stratum Basale/germinative - single layer, highest mitosis
What is
Parlor?
Cyanosis?
Erythema?
Carotene?
Parlor - White, lack of blood flow
Cyanosis- blueish, lack of oxygeninated blood
Erythema - Blushing, inflammation, anger
Carotene - Yellow, from veggies
What are the 2 layers of the dermis and what are they made of and include?
Papillary - Areolor with lots of elastic. Dermal papillae, Fingerprints, touch receptors (meissners), free nerve endings
Reticular - DICT, collagen, elastic. Adipose tissue, hair follicle, nerves, oil glands, ducts, heat sensors
Subcutaneous tissue
Made of?
AKA?
Cells?
Function?
Loose connective tissue w/ collagen & elastic fibers
Hypodermis, supericical fascia
Fibroblasts, adipose cells, macrophages
Energy, insulation, padding
*CONTAINS 1/2 of bodies ADIPOSE TISSUE
What are the 3 main types of hair?
Lanugo - on fetus
Terminal - Dark thick, replace lanugo on eyebrows, scalp, eyelid
Vellus - replace lanugo on rest of body. Light thin
*Puberty terminal grows on genitals, chest, beard, lower legs and arms
Label the parts of the hair
Orange - Arrector pili muscle
Yellow - Sebaceous gland
DERMAL ROOT SHEATH
EPITHELIAL ROOT SHEATH
Green - Inner root sheath / WHITE PART ON END OF HAIR
Light blue - Outer root sheath
Dark blue - Hair matrix
Purple - Hair papilla (NOURISH HAIR)
Label the hair structure
Where is the source of hair growth?
Medulla - Soft keratin
Cortex
Cuticle - hard keratin
Hair bulb is source of hair growth
How is hair color determined?
What is
Eumelanin?
Pheomelanin?
No melainin?
Hair color is determined by melanin ratios
Eumelanin is Black/brown
Pheomelanin is red
No melanin is silver, white, gray
What are the 2 main groups of glands?
What are Ceruminous glands?
What are mammary glands?
Sebaceous glands - holocrine, oily secretion, most empty into hair follicle, inhibit bacteria & dryness
Sweat glands/sudorifious glands - Merocrine/eccrine, open directly to skin, secretes water and salt (ammonia, urea, uric acid, lactic acid) found on palms and soles
Aprocrine sweat glands - (does not use aprocine form of secretion) active at puberty, open to hair follicles, odorless until acted on by bacteria, found in axilla, genitals, and anus
Ceruminous glands - located in auditory canal, merocrin secretion
Mammary glands - aprocrine, release breast milk
What is the nail body made of?
What is eponychium?
What is hypochium?
Stratum corneum
Eponychium is Cuticule
Hypochium is corneum beneath free edge (under nail edge)
What are the degrees on burns?
1st degree - only epidermis
2nd degree - epidermis and dermis (blisters)
3rd degree- epidermis, dermis, hypodermis
What are the functions of bone?
Body support
Organ protection
body movements
Mineral storage - stores calcium, phosphorus, also stores adipose in yellow marrow
Blood cell production - Red bone marrow site of blood cells and platlets
What is
Perichonrium
Chondrocyte
Chondroblast
Perichonrium - Connective tissue covering over cartilage. Supplies blood vessles to chondroblast
Chondrocyte- Mature chondroblast in lacuna
Chondroblast - Cartilage building cells
**CARTILAGE IS AVASCULAR
What is appositional growth?
What is Interstitial growth?
Appositional growth - New cartilage is added to the surface / getting wider
Interstitial growth - Adding new cartilage / getting longer
What is
Osteoclast?
Osteocyte?
Osteoblast?
How much organic vs inorganic material is bone made of?
Osteoclast- Bone destroying cells (acidic enzyme to break bone)
Osteocyte- Mature cells in lacuna, communicate through canluliculi
Osteoblast- Bone building cells
35% organic (collagen/photoglycans) / 65% inorganic (hydroxyphospahte chrystals)
What is bone remodeling?
Lamellar bone?
Spongy bone?
Compact bone?
Bone remodeling - disordered woven bone is remodeled based on stress applied to the bone
Lamellar bone (rings)- Mature bone organized into thin concentric layers
Spongy bone - Trabeculae make spaces that are filled with blood vessels and marrow. Strong yet lightweight
Compact bone- More matrix, more dense, stronger
What covers the ends of long bones? What covers the rest of the bone?
Rounded ends are called?
Middle of long bones are called?
What are metaphyses?
Ends of long bones are covered in articular cartilage/ rest of bone is covered in periosteium for nourishment
Rounded ends are called Epiphyes - has growth plate - how bones grow in length
Middle of long bones are called Diaphaysis
Metaphyses are Necks of long bones where growth occurs
*IN CHILDREN BOTH ENDS OF LONG BONES ARE FILLED WITH RED BONE MARROW. AUDLTS ONLY PROXIMAL ENDS ARE FILLED WITH BONE MARROW
What are 2 ways bones grow?
What is cessation of growth in a bone called?
What is medullary cavity?
What is periosteum?
What is endosteum?
Interstital growth / occurs at layer of cartialge called epiphyseal plate
Epiphyseal line
Medullary cavity is empty portion of diaphysis, lines with spongy bone and endoesum. (filled with red bone marrow in fetus, yellow after that)
Periosteum is CT covering outside of bone, inner layer has bone cells
Endosteum is single layer of CT lining internal surface of medullary cavity & epipyseal spongy bone
What are circumfriential lamalle?
What are interstitial lamallae?
What is concentric lamallae?
Circumfriential lamalle is lamallae that goes around the bone, how its grows appositionally - it will pinch off to form an osteon
Interstitial lamallae - doesnt form full osteon . left over from remodeling
Concentric lamallae - Each layer that makes up the full osteon
What it intermembranous ossification?
What are fontanels?
Where most of flat bones are formed. Skull, mandibule, Clavicles
Mesenchyme -> Connective tissue membrane -> Center of ossification -> Osteoblast come in and build bone -> then all ossification centers come together -> bone
Fontanels - large membrane covered spaces between developing skull bone.
What is endochondrial ossification?
Cartilate is the starting point for growth of bone
Hyaline cartilage covered in perichondrium->Perichondrium becomes Periosteum (bone collar is produced) -> chondrocytes grow (hypertrophy) and begin to calcify -> primary ossification center starts, blood vessles and osteoblast invade -> osteoblast lay down bone matrix, forming spongy bone -> medullary cavity forms in center -> secondary ossification centers form is epiphysis -> ephsisyeal plate becomes line
Base of skull, ends of clavicles, most of remaining bones of skeletal system
Cartilage begins about 4 weeks. ossification of cartilage begins 8wks to 18-20 years old
How do bones grow in width>?
Blood vessles lie in groove
groove is transformed into tunnel
Results in formation of new concentric lamallea
What causes Rickets?
What is Osteomalacia?
What causes Scurvy?
Rickets is in children lack of Vit D/Calcum
Osteomalacia is in adults lack of Vit D/Calcuim - reduced mineralization of bone
Scurvy is lack of Vit C. Hemmorage and ulceration
What is the proces of bone repair?
Hemotoma formation
Callous formation - cartilage
Callous ossification - Cartilage replaced by spongy bone (6-8 weeks from injury)
Bone remodeling - Spongy bone to compact bone
What happens when you have high calcium levels?
What happens when you have low calcium levels?
Calcatonin inhibits osteoclasts from breaking down bone and releasing calcium into the blood. Stimulates Osteoblasts to deposit calcium from blood into the bone to decrease calcium blood levels
Parathyroid hormone, stimulates Osteoclast to release calcium into the blood stream and cause kidneys to synthesize active vit D so intestine can absorb calcuim.
How many total bones do we have? How many Axial? How many appendicular?
What are processes?
What is a fissure?
What is a fossa?
- 80 Axial, 126 appendicular
Processes are projections or outgrowths that form joints/ attachement point
Narrow slit for passage of blood vessels or nerves
Shallow depression
How many cervical vertebrae are there?
What is the 1st cervical vertebrae called? and 2nd? and 7th?
How many thoracic vertebrae are there?
How many Lumbar vertebrae are there?
How many sacral vertebrae are there?
7
Atlas (no body/spinous process)- allows YES, Axis - allows NO, Vertibral prominence- not always bifid
Thoracic - 12 - first 10 articulate with ribs
Lumbar - 5
Sacral - 5
What is
Synarthoses?
Ampiarthoses?
Diarthrodial?
Synarthoses - Allow slight to no movment/ Sutures
Ampiarthoses - Allow a little movement/Sympyses
Diarthrodial - Freely moveable/Synovial
What are fibrous joints?
No joint cavity
Slight or no movment
Connected by short dense regular collagen fibers
Sutures
Syndesmoses - Slight movement (radius/ulna)
Gompheses - tooth to avelor processes
What are Cartilagenous joints?
No joint cavity
Little to no movement
Synchondroses- Hyaline cartialge (episeal plate) no movement
Symphyses- Fibrocartilage (Axis of body) Slight movement
What are synovial joints?
Why is excerising good for synovial joints?
Classifications of synovial joints?
Has a joint cavity
Synovial fluid for lubrication & nourishment for cartilage
Might have articular disc or meniscus
Excersice warms synovial fluid ->swells cartilage which makes it a better protection, then it squeezes fluid and waste out
- *By movement** = Uniaxial, Biaxial, Multiaxial
- *By Shape** = Plane (intervertebral disc), saddle (Thumb), hinge (elbow), pivot (Radial/unlar), ball and socket (glenoidhumeral), Ellipsoid (atlantoccipital joint)
Is there more Na+ & Cl- or K+ outside of the membrane?
What are the 3 factors that contribute to resting membrane potential?
What is polarity?
Explain the process from threshold to return to RMP?
There is more Na+ & Cl- OUTSIDE of the membrane and more K+ INSIDE
Sodium potassium pump, more K+ leak channels than Na+ leak channels, trapped anions attached to ATP or protiens
When there is a difference in membrane potential
Once threshold is reached Voltaged gated Na+ channels open & cell becomes depolarized, Then about 30+ voltage gated K+ open and cell begins repolarization, then K+ stays open to cause hyperpolarization then return to RMP
Explain a chemical synapse
AP comes down axon -> Presynpatic terminal Cause voltage gated Ca2+ channels to open
Ca2+ diffuse into cell and cause Vesicles to release with neurotransmitter
Neurotransmitter diffuse across synaptic cleft
Neurotransmitter combine with receptor sites and cause Na2+ channels to open -> Na2+ diffuse into cell causing AP
List the strutures in order from Muscle to myofilaments
What is the term for muscle cytoplasm?
What is the term for muscle endoplasmic reticulum?
What is the term for muscle plasma membrane?
What is myoglobin?
What is dystrophin?
Muscle->Fascicle->Muscle cell/fiber->Myofibrils->Myofilaments
Sacroplasm
Scaroplasmic reticulium
Sarcolemma
Red pigment and stores oxygen
Dystrophin - links actin to transmembrane proteins and outer muscle cell. Genetic defects cause muscluar dystrophy
What is another name for THICK filament?
What is the THIN filament?
What is the entire length of THICK filament called?
What is the entire length of THIN filament called?
What is the H ZONE?
What covers the active sites where actin binds?
Mysoin
Actin
A BAND
I BAND (plus Z Disc)
THICK Filament only, no over lap
Tropomysoin
What does the M Line do?
What does Z disc do?
What does Titan do?
What is the part of thick and thin overlap called?
What parts shorten during contraction?
Hold myosin filaments in place
Holds actin filaments in place
Hold M line in place and attaches to Mysoin and the Z disc
A BAND
What is cholinesterase?
What is spastic paralysis?
What is tetanus?
What is flaccid paralysis?
What is Curare?
Botox?
***TOXINS THAT INTERFERE WITH SYNAPTIC JUNCTION CAN PARALYZE MUSCLES
Enzyme that breaks down ACH
a state of continual contraction/ possible suffocation
Form of spastic paralysis caused by clostrium tetani/ Tetanus toxin blocks glycine
Flaccid - muscles cannot contract
Curare - blocks ACH receptor sites but does not contract muscle
Blocks release of ACH causing paralysis
What is the process for muscle contraction from AP to contract?
Excitation / Excitaion & Contraction coupling / Contraction
Excitation - AP comes down neuron to neuromuscular junction causing Ca2+ channels to open and Ca2+ enters presynaptic terminal causing a neurotransmitter ACH to be released which stimulates Na+ channels on postsynaptic membrane
Excitation/Contraction coupling - AP goes down sarcolemma to T tubules then activate the gates of terminal cisterne of sarcoplasmic reticulum which releases Ca2+. Ca+2 binds to troponin which moves tropomyosin exposing actin binding sites
Contraction - Myosin binds to actin and releases ATP -> ADP + P and cause it to power stroke then in order for mysoin to relase it needs another ATP
What is the process for muscle relaxation?
Ca2+ is removed from troponin
Need ATP to bind to mysoin heads to release from actin
Tropomysoin blocks actin binding sites
Muscle fiber returns to relaxed state
ACHe breaks down ACH, fragments reabsorbed into synpatic knob
Ca2+ is reabsorbed into sarcoplasmic reticulium
ATP HEAVY PROCESS
What is a motor unit?
What is a twitch?
What is incomplete teatnus?
What is complete teatnus?
What is multiple wave summation?
A nerve and muscle fiber it innervates (avg 200 muscle fibers)
Muscle cell contracts and relaxes
Increased frequency. Contract and half way relax but before full relaxation theres another AP which causes contraction
Stays contracted no relaxation
Increasing tension by increasing AP and not letting it fully relax
What does ISO mean?
ISOMETRIC?
ISOTONIC?
What is concentric contraction?
What is eccentric contraction?
Same
Same distance, length does not change / tension increases
Same tension, length changes
muscle shortens as it maintains tension
muscle lengthens as it maintains tension
What is slow twitch Oxidative type 1?
What is Fast twitch oxidative glycolic Type IIa?
What is Fast twitch glyoclic Type IIb?
What is the difference between anerobic and aerobic respiration?
High myoglobin/Mitochondria -aerobic respiration High staminia / lower limbs / Posture and endurance
High myoglobin/Mitochondria - both aerobic and anarobic Med staminia / lower limbs / endurance
Low myoglobin/Mitochondria -anerobic respiration Fatique fast / upper limbs / rapid movements short burts
Anerobic is the break down of glycogyn without oxygen = 2 ATP
Aerobic uses Oxygen to break down glycogen = 36 ATP
What are the 3 sources of energy for muscle contraction?
Creatine phosphate - during resting stores ATP / energy storage molecule / Energy 10 SEC 1 ATP per phosphate
Lactic acid fermentation - Anaerobic = 2 ATP up to 3 mins of energy
Aerobic respiration = 36 ATP hours of energy
What are the types of muscle fatique below
Physiological?
Muscular?
Synaptic?
What is Rigor mortis?
Physiological - emotional state
Muscular - ATP depletion
Synaptic - occurs in NMJ due to lack of ACH
Rigor mortis - Ca2+ leaks into sarcoplasmic reticulium and attaches to myosin heads and cross bridges form and are unable to detach due to lack of ATP / Rigor ends when muscles degenerate
What is Caveloae in smooth muscle?
What do smooth muscle have instead of Z disc?
What is the regulatory molecule for smooth muscle?
What is the process for muscle contraction?
How does smooth muscle relax?
T tubules for smooth muscle
Dense bodies
Calmodulin
Hormone attaches to hormone receptor which activates G protien, subunit opens Ca2+ channel (or depolarization opens it) Ca2+ diffuse and bind with caulmodulin which binds to myosin kinase and activates it which adds a P to myosin which binds to actin
Myosin phosphatate releases the P from myosin to release from actin
What is the origin?
insertion?
Belly?
Tendons?
Aponeurosis?
Synergist?
Fixtor?
Origin/head - attached to more stationary of 2 bones
Insertion - Attached to bone with greatest movment
Belly - largest portion between orign and insertion
Tendon - attach muscle to bone
Aponeurosis - broad tendon
Synergist - Muscles that work together to cause movement
Fixator - Stabilizer / crossed by prime mover
What is fusiform muscle?
What is pennate muscle?
Rectus means?
Brevis means?
Deltoid?
Latissimus?
Rhomboid?
Fusiform - like parallel except wide in middle
Pennate - feather shaped
Rectus - parallel
Brevis - Short
Deltoid - triangle
Latissimus - widest
Rhomboid - diamond
What is Lever?
Fulcrum?
What is class I?
Wha is class II?
What is class III?
Lever - Rigid shaft or bone
Fulcrum - Pivot point or joint
Class I - Seasaw - Fulcrum between weight and force (atlantooccipital)
Class II - Wheelburrow - weight between fulcrum and pull (metatarsal joint)
Class III - using shovel, Pull between fulcrum and wight (biceps brachi and elbow)
What are the Glial cells of CNS?
What are the Glial cells of ANS?
Glial cells are most numerous in nervous system / they bind neurons together / protect
- *Astrocyte** - pseudopods cover capillaries
- *Ependymal cell** - makes CSF/ lines ventricles and central canal
- *Microglia** - immune cells
- *Oligdendrocytes** - form myelin sheath in CNS
- *Satellie cells**- cover bodies of sensory neuron and autonomic ganglia / insulate and protect
- *Schwann cells** - form myelin sheath / only wrap around 1 neuron
What is the refracory period?
What happens during ESPS?
What happens during ISPS?
Absolute refractory period - when voltaged gated Na2+ channels are being used so they cannot depolarize the membrane anymore
Relative refractory period - Can be depolarized but must be a stronger than normal threshold stimulus / postive
**Helps prevent AP from moving backwards
Excitatory Post Synaptic Potential - depolarization might reach threshold - Na2+ channels open -> Na2+ enters / negative
Inhibitory postsynaptic potential - hyperpolarization and response inhibitory / usualy CL- enters and k+ leaves / decrease in AP
What is spatial summation?
What is temporal summation?
What is saltatory conduction?
A neuron is listening to 2 graded potentials at one time which could both add up to enough for an ACTION POTENTIAL
2 potentials arrive in rapid succession that could add up to an ACTION POTENTIAL.
Nerve signal jumps from node to node
individually they might not add up to an action potential but added they do
What are the 4 major categories of neurotransmitters?
Acetylcholine
Amino acid- glycine, glutamate, aspartate, GABA
Monoamines - E, NE, dopamine, histamine, seratonin
Neuropeptides
GABA and Glycine are big inhibitory ones
What are convergent pathways?
What are divergent pathways?
What is oscillating circuit?
Convergent - many inputs converge and synapse to 1 output
Divergent - 1 or small number of presynpatic neurons synapse with a bunch of outputs
Oscillating circuit - circle
What are the layers of mater on spinal cord, superior to deep?
What are menigeal spaces, superifical to deep?
What is ispalateral?
What is contralateral?
What is spinal nerve from axon to Endoneurium
Dura mater / arachnoid mater / pia mater
Epidural space, subdural space (small CSF), Subarachnoid space
ispalateral - same side
Contralateral - opposite side
Axon -> Schwann cell -> Endoneurium -> Fascicles -> Perineurium -> Endoneurium
How many pair of spinal nerves are there?
Where do the spinal nerves exit?
31
1st pair - vertebral column between skull and atlas
intervertebral foramena
Last 4 pairs - Sacral foramina
Dorsal ramus innervates?
Ventral ramus innervates?
What are the 2 layers of Dura mater on brain?
What does Falx cerebri separate?
What does Falx cerebelli separate?
What does the tentorium cerebelli separate?
Skin and deep muscles of back
Thoracic - intercostals and surrounding skin
*Depends on level
outer periosteal layer / inner meningeal layer
Falx cerebri - separates 2 cerebral hemispheres
Falx cerebelli - separates R&L halves of cerebellum
Tentorium cerebelli - Separates cerebrum from cerebellu,
Where is there no BBB in brain?
What artieries supply blood to brain?
What function does Medulla oblongata have?
What function does Pons have?
What function does Midbrain have?
What is reticular formation?
Circumventricular organs / in 3rd and 4th ventricles / enables brain to monitor blood Ph, etc/ Where viruses like HIV can get in
Carotid artieries & vertebral artieries
Medulla - Pathway for ascending/descending. Reflexes (Swallowing, heartrate, breathing, vomit, vasomotor, respiratory centers) Ventral respiratory group - normal breathing
Dorsal respiratory group - modifies based on hiccup, sneeze etc
Pons - Ascending/descending, info to cerebrum/cerebellum, reflex centers/ Pontiine respiratoruy group - changes in response to sleep, excerise, etc
Midbrain - Ascending/descending. Visual reflex, auditory pathway/ Substancia nigra-subconscious muscle movemnt, Red nuclei, corpra quadgremina- visual hearing reflex
Reticular formation - All through out brain stem, controls cyclic activities, sleep wake / sleep, respiration, posture
What does cerebellum do?
What does diencephalon do?
What does Thalamus do?
What does hypothalamus do?
Subthalamus?
Epithalamus?
Cerebellum - muscle movment, tone, balance, learning motor skills / 50% of neurons / cerebellar peduncles, Flocculonodular lobe - equilibrium, eye movement, balance
Deincephalaon - Connects brainstem to cerebrum, homestatic function
Thalamus - Major sensory rely center, influences mood and movement / senosry info synapses here before going to cerebrum
Hypothalamus - Homestatis, regulating endocrine functions
Subthalamus - Contains nerve tracts and nuclei
Epithalamus - Nuclei responding to olfactory stimuli, pineal gland / habenula - emotional,viseral response to odor,
What does cerebrum do?
What does basil nuclei do?
What does limbic system do?
Cerebrum - conscious perception, thought and conscious motor activity
Basil nuclei - controls muscle activity and posture, largely inhibits unintentional movement when at rest
Limbic system - autonomic response to smell, emotions, mood, memory
Frontal lobe?
Parietal lobe?
Temporal lobe?
Occipital lobe?
Insula?
Frontal lobe - motivation, voluntary motor, planning, mood
Partietal - reception/eval of sensory except smell, hearing, vision
Temporal - Smell, hearing. memory, abstract thought, judgement. insula within
Occipital - Visual input
Insula - understanding spoken language, taste and sensory
What are association fibers?
Commissural fibers?
Projection fibers?
What are basale nuclei?
Nuclei - anywhere we have gray matter = cell bodies
Limbic system?
Association fibers - Connections within same hemisphere
Commissural fibers - Connect one hemisphere to another
Projection fibers - Tracts between cerebrum and other parts of brain and spinal cord
Basale nuclei - Recives input from midbrain and cortex and sends signals back / invovled in motor control, initiating and terminating movments
Limbic system - learning and emotion. Hippocampus-memory, amygdala- emotion. 4 F’s + memory & smell
