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Final exam Flashcards

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1
Q

How is anatomy different from physiology?

Why do some schools study them together and some separate?

How do we study anatomy? physiology?

A
  • *Anatomy** is study of bodies structure (looking at it, describing it)
  • *Physiology** is study of bodies process of function (how does it function, grow, repair, etc)

Some schools study them separately but its important to know how structure relates to function

We can study anatomy by looking at structure, microscopes, xrays, etc. We can study physiology by observation, expieriments, measurement, etc

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2
Q

What are the different branches of the fields of study of anatomy and physiology?

A
  • *Anatomy**
  • Developmental (structural changes from concept to adult)
  • Embryology (structural changes from concept to 8wks)
  • Cytology (structural featurs of cells)
  • Histology (Tissues)
  • Gross anatomy (Structures visualized w/o microscope)
  • *Physiology**
  • Cell physiology (how cells function)
  • Systemic physiology (whole organ system & processes)
  • Neurophysiology (nervous system)
  • Cardiovascular physiology (heart & blood vessels)
  • Pathology (study of disease)
  • Exercise physioloy (changes during excersice)
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3
Q

What are the levels of organization of the human body?

A
  1. Chemical level (atoms form molecules)
  2. Cell level (molecules form organelles)
  3. Tissue level (similar cells form tissues)
  4. Organ level (different tissues make organs)
  5. Organ system
  6. Organism
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4
Q

What are the 11 organ systems?

A

Integumentary system - protection, vit D
Skeletal system - bones, ligaments, joints, cartilage
Muscular system - muscles, tendons
Lymphatic system - removes foreign substances, fights disease
Respiratory system - regulate blood pH
Digestive system
Nervous system
Endocrine system -regulate metabolism, growth, reproduction
Cardiovascular system
Urinary system
Reproductive system

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5
Q

What are the 6 charateristics of life?

A
  • *Organization:** interrelationships between parts of organism and how they interact to function (if we are missing an organ we could die)
  • *Metabolism:** all chemical reactions of the body. Breaking down molecules and building others. Energy transferred from molecule to molecule - FOOD

Responsiveness: sense changes in environment and adjust

Growth: in size/number of cells

  • *Development:** changes in organism over time
  • Differentiation: change from general to specific
  • Morphogenesis: Change in shape of tissues, organs

Reproduction: New cells or organisms

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6
Q

What is homeostatis?

What are the components of regulating homeostatis?

A

Maintaining constant internal environment, despite changes in external environment

Negative and postive feedback
(Receptors, integrating center, effector)

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7
Q

What is a negative feedback loop?

A
  1. Receptors monitor value/environment
  2. Send info to control center
  3. Control center compares value to set point range
  4. If there has been a deviation from set point, control center sends an effector to respond
  5. Effector responds
  6. Produces a response that maintains homeostasis
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8
Q

What is the difference between positive and negative feedback?

A

Negative feedback responds to a deviation away from homeostasis to bring body back to homeostasis

Postive feedback responds to a deviation from homeostasis by pushing/amplifies changes to bring body back to homeostasis (birth)

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9
Q

What is anatomical position?

What is supine?

Prone?

What are the 8 directional terms?

A

Standing straight up, looking straight ahead with palms facing forward

Supine - laying face up

Prone - laying on back

*medial, lateral, superior, inferior, deep, superficial, posterior, anterior

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10
Q

Name the quadrants

A

Right upper / Left upper
Right lower / Left lower

Right hypochondriac region / Epigastric / Left hypochondriac
Right lumbar / Umbilical / Left lumbar
Right iliac / Hypogastric / Left iliac

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11
Q

What are the organs in each region?

If someone was stabbed in upper right quad, what organs might be affected?

If someone was impaled in their left lower, what organs could be involved?

A

*liver, gallbladder, lrg intestine, small intestine

*Sm & lrg intestine, bladder

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12
Q

What do the following planes cut into the body?

Coronal/frontal?

Sagittal/medial?

Transverse?

Oblique?

Longitudional of organ?

Transverse/cross section of organ?

A

Coronal/frontal - Divides body into anterior and posterior

Sagittal/medial - Right or left

Transverse - Superior or inferior

Oblique - diagonal, at an angle other than 90 degree

Longitudonial - Length wise section

Transverse/cross - 90 degree

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13
Q

Where is the thoracic cavity?

What cavities are in thoracic cavity?

Abdominiopelvic cavity?

A

Thoracic - diaphram up

  • *Pleural cavity R&L -** contains lungs
  • *Mediastinum** - middle, contains everything else except lungs
  • *Pericardial cavity** - heart

Abdominopelvic - diaphram down (intestines, reproductive organs, etc)

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14
Q

What is serous membrane?

What organs are retroperitoneal? (not covered in perietal membrane - outer layer)

A

Double walled memebranes that secrete watery fluid for lubrication and reduce friction of organs.

Viseral layer (inner) and Parietal layer (outer)

Kidneys, adrenal glands, pancreas, some intestines, urinary bladder

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15
Q

What are the 4 types of tissues?

*Different based on function, cell type, extracellular matrix

A

Epithelial

Nervous

Muscle

Smooth

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16
Q

What are the embryonic germ layers and what comes from each layer?

A

Endoderm - lining of digestive

Mesoderm - tissue, muscle, bones, blood vessels

Ectoderm - Skin and nervous system (neuroectoderm)

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17
Q

What are the common characteristics of epithelial tissue?

A

Consists almost entirely of cells, little ground substance

Covers body surfaces (lines organs/body cavities) and forms glands

has apical surface

cellular junction

basement membrane

avascular - needs connective tissue under to supply nutrients

regenerates well

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18
Q

How do we classify epithelial tissue?

A

Shape - cubodial, columnar, squamous

Number of layers - simple, stratified, pseudostratified

Transitional - stretched looks squamous, when not stretched looks cuboidal/columnar

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19
Q

What are the functions for each type of epithelial tissue?

Simple?

Stratified?

Cubodial?

Columnar?

Lamina propria?

A

Simple - diffusion, filtration, secretion, absorbtion

Stratified - protection

Squamous - protection and diffusion

Cubodial and columnar - Secretion and aborption. *may include goblet cells

Lamina propria - loose or DICT that has different cells and blood vessels to nourish epithelial layer

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20
Q

Where in the body can you find the following

Simple squamous

Simple cubodial

Simple columnar

Stratified squamous

Pseudostratified

Transitional

A

Simple squamous - lining of blood vessels & heart, alveoili of lungs, body cavities

Simple cubodial - Kidney tubules, glands and their ducts, choroid plexus of brain, lining of bronchoils of lungs

Simple columnar - glands and ducts, uterine tubes, gullbladder, lining of stomach and intestines,

Stratified squamous - Keratinized -Skin. Non keratinized -mouth, throat, anus, vagina

Pseudostratified - lining of nasal cavity, auditory tubes, bronchi of lungs

Transitional - urinary bladder

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21
Q

What are the cell junctions that connect the epithelial cells together?

A

Desmosomes - disc shaped embedded in wall of cell membrane/ places of mechanical stress

Hemidesmosomes - half of desmosome, attached to basement membrane to anchor

Tight junctions - hold cells together and form a permeability bearer so things dont get through

Adhesion belt - holds cells together, not as strong as desmosomes

Gap junction - protein channels, looks like pores, allows intercellular communication

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22
Q

What is an edocrine gland?

What is an exocrine gland?

How are exocrine glands classified?

A
  • *Endocrine gland** - no open contact with exterior, no ducts, produce hormones / made of epithelial tissue
  • *Exocrine gland** - Open contact with exterior, ducts

Exocrine glands are classified by their structure or mode of secretion.

  • *Structure :** Unicellular or multicellular
  • *Secretion:** Merocrine/Eccrine - exocytosis -release through vesicles on side of cell
  • Aprocrine* - pinch off portion of cell (breast feeding)
  • Holocrine* - dying cell becomes secretory product
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23
Q

What are the common characteristics of connective tissue?

A

Found in every organ / Underneath epithelial tissue

Consists of cells separated by extracellular matrix

Enclose and separate other tissues

Connecting tissues to one another

Support/movement

Storing compounds

Cushioning/insulating

Protecting

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24
Q

What is areolar connective tissue?

Fiber types

Cells?

Found?

A

loose connective tissue

Fibers: elastin, collagen

Cells: fibroblasts, macrophages, lymphocytes

Found: epithelial sits on top, packing between glands, muscles, ners attaches skin to underlying tissues

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25
Q

What is adipose connective tissue?

Fiber types

Cells?

Found?

A

Loose connective tissue

Fiber types: Lipid

Cells: adipocytes

Found: Mammary glands, around kidneys

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26
Q

What is reticular connective tissue?

Fiber types

Cells?

Found?

A

loose connective tissue

Fiber type: Reticular

cells:Leukocytes

Found: within lymph nodes, spleen, bone marrow

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27
Q

What is Dense regular connective tissue?

Function?

Fiber types?

Cells?

Found?

A

Dense connective tissue

Pulled in one direction

Fiber type: tigh bundles of collagen fibers

Cells: Fiberblast

Locations: Tendons (muscles to bone) & ligaments

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28
Q

What is Dense irregular connective tissue?

Function?

Fiber types?

Cells?

Found?

A

Dense connective tissue

Withstanding stretch in all directions

Fibers: Collagen

Cells: fibroblast

Found: dermis of skin, organ capsules

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29
Q

What is Hyaline cartilage?

Function?

Fiber types?

Cells?

Found?

A

Cartilage

Function: allows growth of long bones, allows rigidity with some flexibility, forms flexible articulating surfaces

Fiber types: Collagen fibers

Cells: chondrocytes

Found: Costal cartilage of ribs, ariculating surface of bones, embryonic skeleton

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30
Q

What is Fibrocartilage?

Function?

Fiber types?

Cells?

Found?

A

Cartilage

Function: Somewhat flexible, able to withstand pressure, connects structures

Fiber types: Collagen

Cells: Chondrocytes

Found: Intervertebral discs, articular discs

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31
Q

What is Compact bone?

Function?

Fiber types?

Cells?

Found?

A

Bone

Function: Provides strenths and support

Fiber type: Hard bony matrix

Cells: Osteocytes in lacuna

Found: Outer portion of bones, shaft of long bones

*OSTEON
*CANALICULI
*LAMALLAE

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32
Q

What is Spongy bone?

Function?

Fiber types?

Cells?

Found?

A

Bone

Function: Provide strenth and support without the weight

Fiber types: Network of trabeculae with spaces inbetween

Cells: Osteocytes in lacunae

Found: Interior of bones, ends of long bones

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33
Q

What is Blood?

Function?

Fiber types?

Cells?

Found?

What forms blood cells?

A

Blood - connective tissue

Function: Transports oxygen, carbon dixode, nutrients, waste, temp regulation, protection from infection

Fiber types: Plasma

Cells: Red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets

Found: Within blood vessels

Homeopoetic tissue: Red / Yellow bone marrow

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34
Q

Skeletal Muscle

Function?

Found?

Cell shape?

Striations?

Control?

Multinucleate?

A

Moves body

Attached to bones

Long cylindracal

Yes

Yes

Yes

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35
Q

Cardiac Muscle

Function?

Found?

Cell shape?

Striations?

Control?

Multinucleate?

A

Major force for moving blood

in heart

Cylindrical cells that branch

Yes - Striated

Involuntary

Single nucleus

*IINTERCULATED DISC
*GAP JUNCTIONS

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36
Q

Smooth Muscle

Function?

Found?

Cell shape?

Striations?

Control?

Multinucleate?

A

Moves food through digestive tract, regulates blood vessel diameter, changes in pupil size, contracts glands, moves hair

Found: Walls of hallow organs, blood vessels, glands, eyes, skin

Cell shape: Spindle shaped

Striations: no

Control: no

Multinucleate: Single

*HAS GAP JUNCTIONS

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37
Q

Nervous Tissue

Function?

Found?

Cells?

A

Function: Transmit infro to and from CNS

Found: Brain, spinal cord, ganglia

Cells: Neurons, neurogila

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38
Q

What are the different types of membranes>?

A

Mucous: lines cavities that open to the outside of the body. Secretes mucous. Found in respiratory, digestive, reproductive

Serous: Lines cavities not open to exterior. Pericardial, pleural, peritoneal

Synovial: Line freely movable joints, produce fluid rich in hylaronic acid

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39
Q

What kind of cells are in the epidermis?

A

Keratinocytes - produce keratin / strength

Melanocytes - Melanin

Langerhans cells - immune / present antigens to lymphocytes

Merkel cells - detect light touch

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40
Q

What are the layers of epidermis and what happens at each layer?

A

Stratum corneum - 25+ layers dead/cornified cells

Stratum lucidum - only in thick skin, Clear

Stratum ganulosum - Contains keratohylain protein, cells die

Stratum Spinosum - limited cell division, desmosomes

Stratum Basale/germinative - single layer, highest mitosis

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41
Q

What is

Parlor?

Cyanosis?

Erythema?

Carotene?

A

Parlor - White, lack of blood flow

Cyanosis- blueish, lack of oxygeninated blood

Erythema - Blushing, inflammation, anger

Carotene - Yellow, from veggies

42
Q

What are the 2 layers of the dermis and what are they made of and include?

A

Papillary - Areolor with lots of elastic. Dermal papillae, Fingerprints, touch receptors (meissners), free nerve endings

Reticular - DICT, collagen, elastic. Adipose tissue, hair follicle, nerves, oil glands, ducts, heat sensors

43
Q

Subcutaneous tissue

Made of?

AKA?

Cells?

Function?

A

Loose connective tissue w/ collagen & elastic fibers

Hypodermis, supericical fascia

Fibroblasts, adipose cells, macrophages

Energy, insulation, padding

*CONTAINS 1/2 of bodies ADIPOSE TISSUE

44
Q

What are the 3 main types of hair?

A

Lanugo - on fetus

Terminal - Dark thick, replace lanugo on eyebrows, scalp, eyelid

Vellus - replace lanugo on rest of body. Light thin

*Puberty terminal grows on genitals, chest, beard, lower legs and arms

45
Q

Label the parts of the hair

A

Orange - Arrector pili muscle

Yellow - Sebaceous gland

DERMAL ROOT SHEATH

EPITHELIAL ROOT SHEATH

Green - Inner root sheath / WHITE PART ON END OF HAIR

Light blue - Outer root sheath

Dark blue - Hair matrix

Purple - Hair papilla (NOURISH HAIR)

46
Q

Label the hair structure

Where is the source of hair growth?

A

Medulla - Soft keratin

Cortex

Cuticle - hard keratin

Hair bulb is source of hair growth

47
Q

How is hair color determined?

What is

Eumelanin?

Pheomelanin?

No melainin?

A

Hair color is determined by melanin ratios

Eumelanin is Black/brown

Pheomelanin is red

No melanin is silver, white, gray

48
Q

What are the 2 main groups of glands?

What are Ceruminous glands?

What are mammary glands?

A

Sebaceous glands - holocrine, oily secretion, most empty into hair follicle, inhibit bacteria & dryness

Sweat glands/sudorifious glands - Merocrine/eccrine, open directly to skin, secretes water and salt (ammonia, urea, uric acid, lactic acid) found on palms and soles

Aprocrine sweat glands - (does not use aprocine form of secretion) active at puberty, open to hair follicles, odorless until acted on by bacteria, found in axilla, genitals, and anus

Ceruminous glands - located in auditory canal, merocrin secretion

Mammary glands - aprocrine, release breast milk

49
Q

What is the nail body made of?

What is eponychium?

What is hypochium?

A

Stratum corneum

Eponychium is Cuticule

Hypochium is corneum beneath free edge (under nail edge)

50
Q

What are the degrees on burns?

A

1st degree - only epidermis

2nd degree - epidermis and dermis (blisters)

3rd degree- epidermis, dermis, hypodermis

51
Q

What are the functions of bone?

A

Body support

Organ protection

body movements

Mineral storage - stores calcium, phosphorus, also stores adipose in yellow marrow

Blood cell production - Red bone marrow site of blood cells and platlets

52
Q

What is

Perichonrium

Chondrocyte

Chondroblast

A

Perichonrium - Connective tissue covering over cartilage. Supplies blood vessles to chondroblast

Chondrocyte- Mature chondroblast in lacuna

Chondroblast - Cartilage building cells

**CARTILAGE IS AVASCULAR

53
Q

What is appositional growth?

What is Interstitial growth?

A

Appositional growth - New cartilage is added to the surface / getting wider

Interstitial growth - Adding new cartilage / getting longer

54
Q

What is

Osteoclast?

Osteocyte?

Osteoblast?

How much organic vs inorganic material is bone made of?

A

Osteoclast- Bone destroying cells (acidic enzyme to break bone)

Osteocyte- Mature cells in lacuna, communicate through canluliculi

Osteoblast- Bone building cells

35% organic (collagen/photoglycans) / 65% inorganic (hydroxyphospahte chrystals)

55
Q

What is bone remodeling?

Lamellar bone?

Spongy bone?

Compact bone?

A

Bone remodeling - disordered woven bone is remodeled based on stress applied to the bone

Lamellar bone (rings)- Mature bone organized into thin concentric layers

Spongy bone - Trabeculae make spaces that are filled with blood vessels and marrow. Strong yet lightweight

Compact bone- More matrix, more dense, stronger

56
Q

What covers the ends of long bones? What covers the rest of the bone?

Rounded ends are called?

Middle of long bones are called?

What are metaphyses?

A

Ends of long bones are covered in articular cartilage/ rest of bone is covered in periosteium for nourishment

Rounded ends are called Epiphyes - has growth plate - how bones grow in length

Middle of long bones are called Diaphaysis

Metaphyses are Necks of long bones where growth occurs

*IN CHILDREN BOTH ENDS OF LONG BONES ARE FILLED WITH RED BONE MARROW. AUDLTS ONLY PROXIMAL ENDS ARE FILLED WITH BONE MARROW

57
Q

What are 2 ways bones grow?

What is cessation of growth in a bone called?

What is medullary cavity?

What is periosteum?

What is endosteum?

A

Interstital growth / occurs at layer of cartialge called epiphyseal plate

Epiphyseal line

Medullary cavity is empty portion of diaphysis, lines with spongy bone and endoesum. (filled with red bone marrow in fetus, yellow after that)

Periosteum is CT covering outside of bone, inner layer has bone cells

Endosteum is single layer of CT lining internal surface of medullary cavity & epipyseal spongy bone

58
Q

What are circumfriential lamalle?

What are interstitial lamallae?

What is concentric lamallae?

A

Circumfriential lamalle is lamallae that goes around the bone, how its grows appositionally - it will pinch off to form an osteon

Interstitial lamallae - doesnt form full osteon . left over from remodeling

Concentric lamallae - Each layer that makes up the full osteon

59
Q

What it intermembranous ossification?

What are fontanels?

A

Where most of flat bones are formed. Skull, mandibule, Clavicles

Mesenchyme -> Connective tissue membrane -> Center of ossification -> Osteoblast come in and build bone -> then all ossification centers come together -> bone

Fontanels - large membrane covered spaces between developing skull bone.

60
Q

What is endochondrial ossification?

A

Cartilate is the starting point for growth of bone

Hyaline cartilage covered in perichondrium->Perichondrium becomes Periosteum (bone collar is produced) -> chondrocytes grow (hypertrophy) and begin to calcify -> primary ossification center starts, blood vessles and osteoblast invade -> osteoblast lay down bone matrix, forming spongy bone -> medullary cavity forms in center -> secondary ossification centers form is epiphysis -> ephsisyeal plate becomes line

Base of skull, ends of clavicles, most of remaining bones of skeletal system

Cartilage begins about 4 weeks. ossification of cartilage begins 8wks to 18-20 years old

61
Q

How do bones grow in width>?

A

Blood vessles lie in groove

groove is transformed into tunnel

Results in formation of new concentric lamallea

62
Q

What causes Rickets?

What is Osteomalacia?

What causes Scurvy?

A

Rickets is in children lack of Vit D/Calcum

Osteomalacia is in adults lack of Vit D/Calcuim - reduced mineralization of bone

Scurvy is lack of Vit C. Hemmorage and ulceration

63
Q

What is the proces of bone repair?

A

Hemotoma formation

Callous formation - cartilage

Callous ossification - Cartilage replaced by spongy bone (6-8 weeks from injury)

Bone remodeling - Spongy bone to compact bone

64
Q

What happens when you have high calcium levels?

What happens when you have low calcium levels?

A

Calcatonin inhibits osteoclasts from breaking down bone and releasing calcium into the blood. Stimulates Osteoblasts to deposit calcium from blood into the bone to decrease calcium blood levels

Parathyroid hormone, stimulates Osteoclast to release calcium into the blood stream and cause kidneys to synthesize active vit D so intestine can absorb calcuim.

65
Q

How many total bones do we have? How many Axial? How many appendicular?

What are processes?

What is a fissure?

What is a fossa?

A
  1. 80 Axial, 126 appendicular

Processes are projections or outgrowths that form joints/ attachement point

Narrow slit for passage of blood vessels or nerves

Shallow depression

66
Q

How many cervical vertebrae are there?

What is the 1st cervical vertebrae called? and 2nd? and 7th?

How many thoracic vertebrae are there?

How many Lumbar vertebrae are there?

How many sacral vertebrae are there?

A

7

Atlas (no body/spinous process)- allows YES, Axis - allows NO, Vertibral prominence- not always bifid

Thoracic - 12 - first 10 articulate with ribs

Lumbar - 5

Sacral - 5

67
Q

What is

Synarthoses?

Ampiarthoses?

Diarthrodial?

A

Synarthoses - Allow slight to no movment/ Sutures

Ampiarthoses - Allow a little movement/Sympyses

Diarthrodial - Freely moveable/Synovial

68
Q

What are fibrous joints?

A

No joint cavity

Slight or no movment

Connected by short dense regular collagen fibers

Sutures
Syndesmoses - Slight movement (radius/ulna)
Gompheses - tooth to avelor processes

69
Q

What are Cartilagenous joints?

A

No joint cavity

Little to no movement

Synchondroses- Hyaline cartialge (episeal plate) no movement
Symphyses- Fibrocartilage (Axis of body) Slight movement

70
Q

What are synovial joints?

Why is excerising good for synovial joints?

Classifications of synovial joints?

A

Has a joint cavity

Synovial fluid for lubrication & nourishment for cartilage

Might have articular disc or meniscus

Excersice warms synovial fluid ->swells cartilage which makes it a better protection, then it squeezes fluid and waste out

  • *By movement** = Uniaxial, Biaxial, Multiaxial
  • *By Shape** = Plane (intervertebral disc), saddle (Thumb), hinge (elbow), pivot (Radial/unlar), ball and socket (glenoidhumeral), Ellipsoid (atlantoccipital joint)
71
Q

Is there more Na+ & Cl- or K+ outside of the membrane?

What are the 3 factors that contribute to resting membrane potential?

What is polarity?

Explain the process from threshold to return to RMP?

A

There is more Na+ & Cl- OUTSIDE of the membrane and more K+ INSIDE

Sodium potassium pump, more K+ leak channels than Na+ leak channels, trapped anions attached to ATP or protiens

When there is a difference in membrane potential

Once threshold is reached Voltaged gated Na+ channels open & cell becomes depolarized, Then about 30+ voltage gated K+ open and cell begins repolarization, then K+ stays open to cause hyperpolarization then return to RMP

72
Q

Explain a chemical synapse

A

AP comes down axon -> Presynpatic terminal Cause voltage gated Ca2+ channels to open

Ca2+ diffuse into cell and cause Vesicles to release with neurotransmitter

Neurotransmitter diffuse across synaptic cleft

Neurotransmitter combine with receptor sites and cause Na2+ channels to open -> Na2+ diffuse into cell causing AP

73
Q

List the strutures in order from Muscle to myofilaments

What is the term for muscle cytoplasm?

What is the term for muscle endoplasmic reticulum?

What is the term for muscle plasma membrane?

What is myoglobin?

What is dystrophin?

A

Muscle->Fascicle->Muscle cell/fiber->Myofibrils->Myofilaments

Sacroplasm

Scaroplasmic reticulium

Sarcolemma

Red pigment and stores oxygen

Dystrophin - links actin to transmembrane proteins and outer muscle cell. Genetic defects cause muscluar dystrophy

74
Q

What is another name for THICK filament?

What is the THIN filament?

What is the entire length of THICK filament called?

What is the entire length of THIN filament called?

What is the H ZONE?

What covers the active sites where actin binds?

A

Mysoin

Actin

A BAND

I BAND (plus Z Disc)

THICK Filament only, no over lap

Tropomysoin

75
Q

What does the M Line do?

What does Z disc do?

What does Titan do?

What is the part of thick and thin overlap called?

What parts shorten during contraction?

A

Hold myosin filaments in place

Holds actin filaments in place

Hold M line in place and attaches to Mysoin and the Z disc

A BAND

76
Q

What is cholinesterase?

What is spastic paralysis?

What is tetanus?

What is flaccid paralysis?

What is Curare?

Botox?

***TOXINS THAT INTERFERE WITH SYNAPTIC JUNCTION CAN PARALYZE MUSCLES

A

Enzyme that breaks down ACH

a state of continual contraction/ possible suffocation

Form of spastic paralysis caused by clostrium tetani/ Tetanus toxin blocks glycine

Flaccid - muscles cannot contract

Curare - blocks ACH receptor sites but does not contract muscle

Blocks release of ACH causing paralysis

77
Q

What is the process for muscle contraction from AP to contract?

Excitation / Excitaion & Contraction coupling / Contraction

A

Excitation - AP comes down neuron to neuromuscular junction causing Ca2+ channels to open and Ca2+ enters presynaptic terminal causing a neurotransmitter ACH to be released which stimulates Na+ channels on postsynaptic membrane

Excitation/Contraction coupling - AP goes down sarcolemma to T tubules then activate the gates of terminal cisterne of sarcoplasmic reticulum which releases Ca2+. Ca+2 binds to troponin which moves tropomyosin exposing actin binding sites

Contraction - Myosin binds to actin and releases ATP -> ADP + P and cause it to power stroke then in order for mysoin to relase it needs another ATP

78
Q

What is the process for muscle relaxation?

A

Ca2+ is removed from troponin

Need ATP to bind to mysoin heads to release from actin

Tropomysoin blocks actin binding sites

Muscle fiber returns to relaxed state

ACHe breaks down ACH, fragments reabsorbed into synpatic knob

Ca2+ is reabsorbed into sarcoplasmic reticulium

ATP HEAVY PROCESS

79
Q

What is a motor unit?

What is a twitch?

What is incomplete teatnus?

What is complete teatnus?

What is multiple wave summation?

A

A nerve and muscle fiber it innervates (avg 200 muscle fibers)

Muscle cell contracts and relaxes

Increased frequency. Contract and half way relax but before full relaxation theres another AP which causes contraction

Stays contracted no relaxation

Increasing tension by increasing AP and not letting it fully relax

80
Q

What does ISO mean?

ISOMETRIC?

ISOTONIC?

What is concentric contraction?

What is eccentric contraction?

A

Same

Same distance, length does not change / tension increases

Same tension, length changes

muscle shortens as it maintains tension

muscle lengthens as it maintains tension

81
Q

What is slow twitch Oxidative type 1?

What is Fast twitch oxidative glycolic Type IIa?

What is Fast twitch glyoclic Type IIb?

What is the difference between anerobic and aerobic respiration?

A

High myoglobin/Mitochondria -aerobic respiration High staminia / lower limbs / Posture and endurance

High myoglobin/Mitochondria - both aerobic and anarobic Med staminia / lower limbs / endurance

Low myoglobin/Mitochondria -anerobic respiration Fatique fast / upper limbs / rapid movements short burts

Anerobic is the break down of glycogyn without oxygen = 2 ATP

Aerobic uses Oxygen to break down glycogen = 36 ATP

82
Q

What are the 3 sources of energy for muscle contraction?

A

Creatine phosphate - during resting stores ATP / energy storage molecule / Energy 10 SEC 1 ATP per phosphate

Lactic acid fermentation - Anaerobic = 2 ATP up to 3 mins of energy

Aerobic respiration = 36 ATP hours of energy

83
Q

What are the types of muscle fatique below

Physiological?

Muscular?

Synaptic?

What is Rigor mortis?

A

Physiological - emotional state

Muscular - ATP depletion

Synaptic - occurs in NMJ due to lack of ACH

Rigor mortis - Ca2+ leaks into sarcoplasmic reticulium and attaches to myosin heads and cross bridges form and are unable to detach due to lack of ATP / Rigor ends when muscles degenerate

84
Q

What is Caveloae in smooth muscle?

What do smooth muscle have instead of Z disc?

What is the regulatory molecule for smooth muscle?

What is the process for muscle contraction?

How does smooth muscle relax?

A

T tubules for smooth muscle

Dense bodies

Calmodulin

Hormone attaches to hormone receptor which activates G protien, subunit opens Ca2+ channel (or depolarization opens it) Ca2+ diffuse and bind with caulmodulin which binds to myosin kinase and activates it which adds a P to myosin which binds to actin

Myosin phosphatate releases the P from myosin to release from actin

85
Q

What is the origin?

insertion?

Belly?

Tendons?

Aponeurosis?

Synergist?

Fixtor?

A

Origin/head - attached to more stationary of 2 bones

Insertion - Attached to bone with greatest movment

Belly - largest portion between orign and insertion

Tendon - attach muscle to bone

Aponeurosis - broad tendon

Synergist - Muscles that work together to cause movement

Fixator - Stabilizer / crossed by prime mover

86
Q

What is fusiform muscle?

What is pennate muscle?

Rectus means?

Brevis means?

Deltoid?

Latissimus?

Rhomboid?

A

Fusiform - like parallel except wide in middle

Pennate - feather shaped

Rectus - parallel

Brevis - Short

Deltoid - triangle

Latissimus - widest

Rhomboid - diamond

87
Q

What is Lever?

Fulcrum?

What is class I?

Wha is class II?

What is class III?

A

Lever - Rigid shaft or bone

Fulcrum - Pivot point or joint

Class I - Seasaw - Fulcrum between weight and force (atlantooccipital)

Class II - Wheelburrow - weight between fulcrum and pull (metatarsal joint)

Class III - using shovel, Pull between fulcrum and wight (biceps brachi and elbow)

88
Q

What are the Glial cells of CNS?

What are the Glial cells of ANS?

Glial cells are most numerous in nervous system / they bind neurons together / protect

A
  • *Astrocyte** - pseudopods cover capillaries
  • *Ependymal cell** - makes CSF/ lines ventricles and central canal
  • *Microglia** - immune cells
  • *Oligdendrocytes** - form myelin sheath in CNS
  • *Satellie cells**- cover bodies of sensory neuron and autonomic ganglia / insulate and protect
  • *Schwann cells** - form myelin sheath / only wrap around 1 neuron
89
Q

What is the refracory period?

What happens during ESPS?

What happens during ISPS?

A

Absolute refractory period - when voltaged gated Na2+ channels are being used so they cannot depolarize the membrane anymore

Relative refractory period - Can be depolarized but must be a stronger than normal threshold stimulus / postive

**Helps prevent AP from moving backwards

Excitatory Post Synaptic Potential - depolarization might reach threshold - Na2+ channels open -> Na2+ enters / negative

Inhibitory postsynaptic potential - hyperpolarization and response inhibitory / usualy CL- enters and k+ leaves / decrease in AP

90
Q

What is spatial summation?

What is temporal summation?

What is saltatory conduction?

A

A neuron is listening to 2 graded potentials at one time which could both add up to enough for an ACTION POTENTIAL

2 potentials arrive in rapid succession that could add up to an ACTION POTENTIAL.

Nerve signal jumps from node to node

individually they might not add up to an action potential but added they do

91
Q

What are the 4 major categories of neurotransmitters?

A

Acetylcholine

Amino acid- glycine, glutamate, aspartate, GABA

Monoamines - E, NE, dopamine, histamine, seratonin

Neuropeptides

GABA and Glycine are big inhibitory ones

92
Q

What are convergent pathways?

What are divergent pathways?

What is oscillating circuit?

A

Convergent - many inputs converge and synapse to 1 output

Divergent - 1 or small number of presynpatic neurons synapse with a bunch of outputs

Oscillating circuit - circle

93
Q

What are the layers of mater on spinal cord, superior to deep?

What are menigeal spaces, superifical to deep?

What is ispalateral?

What is contralateral?

What is spinal nerve from axon to Endoneurium

A

Dura mater / arachnoid mater / pia mater

Epidural space, subdural space (small CSF), Subarachnoid space

ispalateral - same side

Contralateral - opposite side

Axon -> Schwann cell -> Endoneurium -> Fascicles -> Perineurium -> Endoneurium

94
Q

How many pair of spinal nerves are there?

Where do the spinal nerves exit?

A

31

1st pair - vertebral column between skull and atlas
intervertebral foramena
Last 4 pairs - Sacral foramina

95
Q

Dorsal ramus innervates?

Ventral ramus innervates?

What are the 2 layers of Dura mater on brain?

What does Falx cerebri separate?

What does Falx cerebelli separate?

What does the tentorium cerebelli separate?

A

Skin and deep muscles of back

Thoracic - intercostals and surrounding skin
*Depends on level

outer periosteal layer / inner meningeal layer

Falx cerebri - separates 2 cerebral hemispheres

Falx cerebelli - separates R&L halves of cerebellum

Tentorium cerebelli - Separates cerebrum from cerebellu,

96
Q

Where is there no BBB in brain?

What artieries supply blood to brain?

What function does Medulla oblongata have?

What function does Pons have?

What function does Midbrain have?

What is reticular formation?

A

Circumventricular organs / in 3rd and 4th ventricles / enables brain to monitor blood Ph, etc/ Where viruses like HIV can get in

Carotid artieries & vertebral artieries

Medulla - Pathway for ascending/descending. Reflexes (Swallowing, heartrate, breathing, vomit, vasomotor, respiratory centers) Ventral respiratory group - normal breathing
Dorsal respiratory group - modifies based on hiccup, sneeze etc

Pons - Ascending/descending, info to cerebrum/cerebellum, reflex centers/ Pontiine respiratoruy group - changes in response to sleep, excerise, etc

Midbrain - Ascending/descending. Visual reflex, auditory pathway/ Substancia nigra-subconscious muscle movemnt, Red nuclei, corpra quadgremina- visual hearing reflex

Reticular formation - All through out brain stem, controls cyclic activities, sleep wake / sleep, respiration, posture

97
Q

What does cerebellum do?

What does diencephalon do?

What does Thalamus do?

What does hypothalamus do?

Subthalamus?

Epithalamus?

A

Cerebellum - muscle movment, tone, balance, learning motor skills / 50% of neurons / cerebellar peduncles, Flocculonodular lobe - equilibrium, eye movement, balance

Deincephalaon - Connects brainstem to cerebrum, homestatic function

Thalamus - Major sensory rely center, influences mood and movement / senosry info synapses here before going to cerebrum

Hypothalamus - Homestatis, regulating endocrine functions

Subthalamus - Contains nerve tracts and nuclei

Epithalamus - Nuclei responding to olfactory stimuli, pineal gland / habenula - emotional,viseral response to odor,

98
Q

What does cerebrum do?

What does basil nuclei do?

What does limbic system do?

A

Cerebrum - conscious perception, thought and conscious motor activity

Basil nuclei - controls muscle activity and posture, largely inhibits unintentional movement when at rest

Limbic system - autonomic response to smell, emotions, mood, memory

99
Q

Frontal lobe?

Parietal lobe?

Temporal lobe?

Occipital lobe?

Insula?

A

Frontal lobe - motivation, voluntary motor, planning, mood

Partietal - reception/eval of sensory except smell, hearing, vision

Temporal - Smell, hearing. memory, abstract thought, judgement. insula within

Occipital - Visual input

Insula - understanding spoken language, taste and sensory

100
Q

What are association fibers?

Commissural fibers?

Projection fibers?

What are basale nuclei?

Nuclei - anywhere we have gray matter = cell bodies

Limbic system?

A

Association fibers - Connections within same hemisphere

Commissural fibers - Connect one hemisphere to another

Projection fibers - Tracts between cerebrum and other parts of brain and spinal cord

Basale nuclei - Recives input from midbrain and cortex and sends signals back / invovled in motor control, initiating and terminating movments

Limbic system - learning and emotion. Hippocampus-memory, amygdala- emotion. 4 F’s + memory & smell

Bio 223 (37 decks)

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