Final: Exam 1 Review Flashcards
increases and decreases activity of the effectors
integrating center
which is not included in the negative feedback loop?
a. blood sugar
b. temperature
c. most common feedback loop
d. blood clotting
d. blood clotting
which is the healthier fatty acid, saturated or unsaturated?
unsaturated
what is in between two amino acid/proteins?
amino acids are linked by?
peptide bonds
what is the secondary structure of amino acids
- aa shaped by hydrogen bond
- alpha helices and beta pleated sheets
What is not in DNA bases? that is used in RNA
uracil
what is ketosis
increased blood ketones
what is the basis/building blocks of nucleic acids?
nucleotides
what is prostaglandin
cyclic carbon with fat chains
rate of diffusion does not include?
ATP
The resting membrane potential is -70mV, Na+ is 65 mV. Na+ contributes more than K+…
False
What is the non-coding region in genes in pre-mRNA
introns
Growth by increase in number of cells
hyperplasia
Transamination/deamination can be converted to by…acetyl coa
all of the above?
krebs yes, pyruvic acid yes
what will inhibity glycolysis
excess of ATP
What is Na+/K+ pump
- 3 Na+ out and 2 K+ in
- primary active transport
What does secondary transport often uses?
symport
Secondary active transport uses energy from
uses energy from downhill movement of Na+ to drive “uphill” movement of another molecule
What does glycolysis uses and end product
uses glucoses with end product of water
what is telomeres
the non coding of genes in end of chromosomes end cap
when does sister chormatids separate
anaphase
What is trapped inside cell/charge?
anions
Positive feedback loop does what?
amplifies initial change
Homeostasis does what
maintain constant internal condition
Detect deviation from set point and send information to integrating centers
a. Sensors
Receive information from sensors and will cause the increase or decrease of activity of effectors; determines a response
a. Integrating center
Usually muscle or gland; will respond to messages from integrating centers to bring back homeostasis; produces the response
a. Effectors
When the action of the effectors is in the opposite direction of the initial change
a. Negative feedback loop
When the action of the effectors is in the same direction of the initial change; initial change is amplified
a. Positive feedback loop
control is built into organ being regulated
a. intrinsic
Control comes from outside of organ; by nervous or endocrine systems
a. Extrinsic
4 major subcategories of lipids
a. Triglycerides
b. phospholipids
c. steroids
d. prostaglandins
Which one is the healthier fatty acid that contains double bonds within hydrocarbon chains
a. Unsaturated
Increase blood ketones
a. Ketosis
Increase blood ketones too high and causes decrease ph
a. Ketoacidosis
Cyclic hydrocarbon group with fatty acid chains
a. Prostaglandins
Differences between amino acids are due to
a. Differences in functional group
Amino acids are linked by
a. Peptide bonds
Sequence of amino acids aa coded by genes (genetic code)…not functional
a. Primary structure of protein
Shape of aa caused by hydrogen bonding. Alpha and beta pleated sheets
a. Secondary structure of protein
Contains genetic code include DNA and RNA and made of long chains of nucleotides
a. Nucleic acids
Basic building blocks of nucleic acids
a. Nucleotides
Basis for ______ include guanine, thymine, cytosine, and adenine
a. DNA
Basis for _____ include guanine, uracil, cytosine, and adenine
a. RNA
2 strands of DNA to form ________ …law of complementary base pairing: A with T, C with G
a. Double Helix
A meshwork of protein fibers (collagen and elastin fibers) linked to molecules of gel-like ground substances
a. Extracellular matrix
Involves specific protein transporters (facilitated diffusion and active transport)
a. Carrier-mediated transport
Transport that Occurs by diffusion through membranes
a. Non-carrier mediated transport
- Moves compounds down concentration gradient (from areas of higher concentration to areas of lower concentration); require no energy and includes simple diffusion (osmosis and facilitated diffusion)
a. Passive transport
Moves compounds up a concentration gradient (from areas of lower concentration to areas of higher concentration). Requires energy and specific concentration
a. Active transport
Random motion of molecules due to heat energy (random molecular collision
a. Diffusion
Rate of diffusion depends on
a. Magnitude of its concentration gradient which creates driving force
b. Permeability of membrane to it
c. Temperature
d. Surface area of membrane
Net diffusion of H2O across a selective permeable membrane…h2o diffuses down its concentration gradient
a. Osmosis
Solutes have to be _____ = cannot freely move across membrane for osmosis to occur
a. Osmotically active
Some cells have _______ to facilitate osmosis in special membranes
a. Aquaporins (water channels)
Measure of the tendency for a soln. to gain H2O by osmosis
a. Osmotic pressure
Solution have same osmotic pressure; has an equal concentration of solute; no osmosis
a. Isotonic
Solutions have higher osmotic pressure and are osmotically active; has a higher concentration of solute and causes cells to shrivel.
a. Hypertonic
If dehydrated, osmoreceptors in hypothalamus stimulate
a. ADH release
Protein carriers exhibit
a. Specificity
b. Competition
c. Saturation
Facilitated diffusion example; passive transport, no energy required. Down concentration gradient, by carrier proteins
a. Glucose transporter (Glut4 in skeletal muscle)
Transport of molecules against a concentration gradient requires ATP
a. Primary active transport
Uses ATP to move 3 Na+ out and 2 K+ in against their gradient
a. Active transport: Na+/K+ pump
Uses energy from “downhill transport of Na* to drive “uphill” movement of another molecules
a. Secondary active transport (coupled transport)
Secondary transport often uses that is in same direction as Na+ ex. Glucose
a. Cotransport; symport
Moves molecules in opposite direction of Na+ ex Ca2+
a. Countertransport (antiport)
- Transport of digestion products across intestinal epithelium into blood
a. Absorption
Transport molecules out of urinary filtrate back into blood
a. Reabsorption
T or False 67% of body H2O is intracellular and 33% is extracellular
a. True
T or False intracellular consist of 80% interstitial tissue fluid and 20% blood ECF
a. False extracellular fluid
Filtration is determined by ______ which is pressure exerted by fluid (blood pressure)
a. Hydrostatic pressure
Colloid osmotic pressure is exerted by
a. Proteins in fluid
85% of fluid filtered from capillaries is returned directly to_______. The other 15% is returned to circulation via lymphatic system.
a. Capillaries
Excessive accumulation of tissue fluid
a. Edema
All reactions in body that involve energy transformation
a. Metabolism
- Breaks down molecules and releases energy and is primary source of energy for making ATP
a. Catabolism
Makes larger molecules and requires energy and source of body’s large energy-storage compounds
a. Anabolism
Glucose and oxygen are converted into CO2 and water in process of making ATP
a. Aerobic cellular respiration
Glucose is converted into CO2 and water in process of making ATP
a. Anaerobic cellular respiration
Metabolic pathway by which glucose is converted to 2 pyruvates; occurs in cytoplasm and doesn’t require oxygen
a. Glycolysis
What is NAD
a. Electron carrier
Both aerobic and anaerobic respiration begin with
a. Glycolysis
In order for glycolysis to continue there must be sufficient
a. NAD available to accept hydrogen from glucose
In absence of O2 (anaerobic respiration = lactic acid fermentation, NADH gives its Hs to pyruvate creating ______ which makes muscles feel fatigued and can cause cell death in excessively high concentration
a. Lactic acid
Process of polymerizing glucose into glycogen
a. Glycogenesis
2-way traffic between skeletal muscle and the liver
a. Cori cycle
Aerobic respiration has end products of
a. CO2, H2O and ATP
Aerobic respiration begins when pyruvate enters
a. Mitochondria
Point of Krebs cycle
a. Carry electrons to electron transport chain ETC
_______ is a link series of protein embedded in the cristae of the mitochondria which creates proton concentration gradient that atp synthase uses as energy to make ATP
a. Electron transport chain
What serves as the last electron acceptor for the electron transport chain
a. O2
T or F Proteins can be broken down to amino acids, which can be deaminated, converted into pyruvate and run thru Krebs and be used to interconvert carb, fats and proteins into cellular energy
a. True
When more energy is taken in that consumed, what is inhibited
a. Atp synthesis
_____ is a common substrate for energy and synthetic pathways because it can be sent to Krebs cycle (to make ATP) or made into cholesterol, bile salts, steroid hormones, ketone bodies, and fatty acids
a. Acetyl CoA
Breakdown of fat into free fatty acids and glycerol via hydrolysis by lipase
a. Lipolysis
Major site for thermogenesis in the newborn and amount of brown fat greatest at time of birth
a. Brown fat
Formation of glucose from non-carbohydrates
a. Gluconeogenesis
How DNA controls production of proteins (transcription and translation)
a. Gene expression
Lengths of DNA that code for polypeptides via synthesis of RNA
a. Genes
Occurs when DNA sequence in a gene is copied to make an mRNA sequence; occurs in nucleus
a. Transcription
Occurs when mRNA sequence is used to make a protein; occurs in cytoplasm
a. Translation
Each nucleus contains 1 or more dark areas that contain genes actively making mRNA
a. Nucleoli
Refers to all genes in an individual or in a species
a. Genome
Refers to all proteins produced by a genome
a. Proteome
DNA and its associated proteins (histones); threadlike material that makes up chromosomes
a. Chromatin
Part of chromosomes active in transcription; light in color
a. Euchromatin
For transcription to occur ______ binds to a start sequence on DNA and unzips strands
a. RNA polymerase
Regulates levels of transcription
a. Promoter region
Regulatory molecules that must bind to promoter region of a gene to initiate transcription
a. Transcription factors
Contains code for synthesis of a protein
a. mRNA messenger RNA
decodes info contained mRNA
a. tRNA
pre-mRNA contains non-coding regions within the gene called ____, which are spliced out of the sequence
a. introns
coding regions that are expressed are called
a. exons
Each triplet in mRNA is a _____ which specifies an amino acid
a. Codon
tRNA reads codon as
a. anticodons
____ break hydrogen bonds of double helices to produce 2 free strands of DNA
a. Helicases
_____ binds to each strand and makes new complementary copy of old strand using using A-T, C-G pairing rules
a. DNA polymerase
Each copy of DNA is composed of 1 new strand and 1 old strand is called
a. Semiconservative replication
Most cells of body are in ____ the non-dividing stage of life cycle
a. Interphase
In what phase is DNA replicated in preparation of division
a. S Phase
Group of proteins that promote different phases of cell cycle
a. Cyclins
Genes whose mutations are associated with cancer
a. Oncogenes
Tumor suppressor genes inhibit cancer development. Gene ___ inhibits cyclin activity and mutation in this gene are associated with 50% of cancers
a. Gene p53
Cell death occurs in 2 ways
a. Necrosis
b. apoptosis
Occurs when pathological changes kill a cell and thus tissue
a. Necrosis
Programmed cell death occurs as a normal physiological response controlled by proteins; tissue repair (immunity) and remodeling (stomach and skin)
a. Apoptosis
The sister chromatids separate in what phase
a. Anaphase
Microtubule organizing center; forms spindle fibers
a. Centrosome
Non-coding regions of DNA at ends of chromosomes
a. Telomeres
Growth due to an increase in the size of cells
a. Hypertrophy
Decrease in cell size, opposite of hypertrophy
a. Atrophy
Growth due to an increase in the number of cells
a. Hyperplasia
Gametes (oocytes and sperm cells) each carry 23 chromosomes, which are structurally identical to each other
a. Homologous chromosomes
Process of making gametes (ova and sperm) containing ½ genetic material
a. Meiosis
In Meiosis 2nd division each daughter divides and contains 23 chromosomes rather than 46 like parent cell that why it is called
a. Reduction division
Brain and Spinal cord of the nervous system
a. Central nervous system
Network of nerves and ganglia carrying signals into and out of the CNS: cranial and spinal nerves
a. Peripheral nervous system
What are the functional units of nervous system
a. Neurons
Group of cell bodies in CNS are called ___; In PNS are called ____
a. Nuclei; ganglia
Branched processes extending from the cell body’s cytoplasm; receive information, convey it to cell body
a. Dendrites
Conducts impulses away from cell body
a. Axons
Neurons conduct impulses into CNS
a. Sensory/afferent
Neurons carry impulses out of CNS
a. Motor/efferent
Responsible for reflexive and voluntary muscle control
a. Somatic motor neurons
Responsible for smooth and cardiac muscle control and glands
a. Autonomic motor neurons
In PNS each sheath of Schwann cells
a. Electrically insulates axon
In CNS each oligodendrocyte myelinates several CNS axons causing axons of CNS to appear white called
a. White matter
High concentration of cell bodies and dendrocytes without myelin sheaths in CNS
a. Gray matter
Uninsulated gap between adjacent Schwann cells is called
a. Node of Ranvier
Chemicals that promote fetal nerve growth, are required for survival of many adult neurons, and are important in regeneration
a. Neurotrophins
Occurs much more readily in PNS than CNS because oligodendrocytes produce proteins that inhibit regrowth and glial scars in CNS
a. Nerve regeneration
The most common glial cell; involve in inducing capillaries to form blood-brain barrier, buffering K+ levels, recycling NTs, regulating adult neurogenesis, taking up of glucose from blood, synapse formation
a. Astrocytes
At rest, all cells have a negative internal charge, neurons have an RMP of ~ 70 mv
a. Resting membrane potentials
Occurs when MP becomes more positive; excitatory (excites nerve impulses)
a. Depolarization
Is a wave of MP change that sweeps along the axon from soma to synapse
a. Action potential
Depolarization and repolarization occur via
a. Diffusion
Stimulus intensity is coded by
a. Frequency
Membrane cannot produce another AP because Na+ channels are inactivated
a. Absolute refractory period
Occurs when VG K+ channels are open, making it harder to depolarize to threshold
a. Relative refractory period
- Because cytoplasm has high resistance and current leaks out through ion channels axon cable properties are
a. Poor
- Conduction in an unmyelinated axon is
a. Slow
Gaps in myelin are called nodes of Ranvier; Conduction in myelinated axon is fast because Aps skip node from node which is called
a. Saltatory conduction
Depolarization flows from presynaptic into postsynaptic cell through channels called ___ which is formed by connexin proteins
a. Gap junction
Depolarizing channels cause ____ (on), while hyperpolarizing channels cause ____ (off)
a. EPSP, IPSP
What is the most widely used NT; at all neuromuscular junctions and used in brain; can be excitatory or inhibitory depending on receptor subtype; nicotinic or muscarinic
a. Acetylcholine
Produces excitatory postsynaptic potentials, permits diffusion of Na+ into and K+ out of postsynaptic cell; inward flow of Na+ dominates
a. Nicotinic Ach channel
Synapse between somatic motor neuron and skeletal muscle cells; use Ach
a. End plates or neuromuscular junctions
Involved in regulation of mood, behavior, appetite, and cerebral circulation
a. Serotonin
Involved in motor control and emotional reward (reward system is involved in addiction)
a. Dopamine
Takes place when EPSP from different synapses occur in postsynaptic cell at same time
a. Spatial summation
- Occurs because EPSPs that occur closely in time can sum before they fade
a. Temporal summation
Difference in charge across membrane; results in part from presence of large anions being trapped inside cell and actions of Na+/K+ pumps
a. Membrane potential
T or F K+ is attracted inside by trapped anions but also driven out by its [gradient]
a. True
Theoretical voltage across cell membrane if only 1 ion could diffuse through the membrane
a. Equilibrium potential
Voltage difference across the membrane
a. Potential difference
Membrane voltage of cell in unstimulated state; -65 to -85 mV
a. Resting membrane potential
RMP depends on concentration of ions inside and out and on permeability of each ion and is not affect by ____ because the membrane is most permeable to it
a. K+
Because 3 Na+ are pumped out for every 2K+ takin in, pump is
a. Electrogenic
During aerobic respiration after pyruvate enters mitochondria it is converted into
Acetyl CoA
Energy on acetyl coa is extracted during
Aerobic respiration in mitochondria
The o2 in co2 is not from breathed o2 it is from
Glucose
Energy gathered by ETC by the passage of e is used to pump H+ into mitochondria outer chamber; this creates high H+ concentration
Chemiosmotic theory
