Exam Review Flashcards
Matching: Deductive Reasoning/Inductive Reasoning
Deductive Reasoning:
* Taking an assumption and testing it on an individual/case. It aims at testing an existing theory
Inductive Reasoning:
* Taking information about someone to make general assumptions. Aims at creating a theory
Matching: Norms, Roles,Values
Norm:
- Behaviour expected of someone in a certain situation
Role:
- Behaviour expected based on your social position
Value:
- An idea/standard that is considered important and binding
Matching: The Bystander Effect
- Not taking action about something and leaving other people to do it, causing no one to take action
Matching: Types of socialization - Primary Socialization, Secondary Socialization, Resocialization, Anticipatory Socialization
Primary Socialization:
- An individual learns basic norms and values in childhood from their families
Secondary socialization:
- When other institutions and people socialize an individual. This can be schools, friends, the media, etc
Resolization:
- When an individual adopts new values, behaviors and attitudes to mark their transition from one role/behavior to another
Anticipatory socialization:
- Using your skills of socialization to anticipate the expected behavior in a certain situation
Matching: Attachment styles - Secure Attachment, Resistant Attachment, Avoidant/Ambivalent Attachment
Secure Attachment:
- When the child is loved by their parents (given adequate attention).
- This can be playing with the child.
- This leads to positive self image and a good relationship with parents
Resistant Attachment:
- This is when the parent gives some attention to a child, but sometimes does not.
- This can be if a parent plays with a child, but later does not play with a child until a very long time.
- This can lead to the child acting out and having a low self esteem
Avoidant Attachment:
- When the parent gives no attention to the child.
- This can be if the parent does not change the child’s diaper or does not play with the child.
- This can lead to low self esteem, loneliness, trouble making friends, etc.
Matching: Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic: Motivation that comes within. This can be playing a sport because it makes you feel food
Extrinsic motivation: Motivation that comes from external factors. For example if it can be through rewards (money) or from individuals (parents).
Matching: Positive and Negative Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement:
- Adding something (stimuli)to increase a behavior. For example getting money if you study
Negative Reinforcement:
- Taking something away to increase a behavior. For example getting your phone taken away so you can study
Matching: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
- In order to self-actualize, individuals must fulfill all their basic needs. By completing these needs, one can self-actualize (moving up on pyramid). These are physiological, safety, love, esteem, and self-actualization
Matching: 4 Ethical Principles of Conducting Psychological Experiments
Integrity of relationships
- Reachers must not exploit their relationships for personal or political gain at the expense of the participant. All relationships must remain professional, not personal
Responsible to society
- The research must have adequate knowledge on the social structure, customs and culture they are working in within a community. There should also be a diverse group of participants
Responsble caring
- No harm is done to those involved. If harm is done to animals, it should be the last resort and must be justified. The benefit of the study should be greater than the risk
Respect for the dignity of others
- The research must be done for its intended purpose, and the participants should know the purpose of the study. The participants should provide their contest for their information to be used. No long term physical or psychological harm should be done
Matching: Cognitive dissonance
- When our beliefs do not line up with our actions.
- For example, a someone smoking even though they know it’s bad for them
Matching: Groupthink
- When group members agree with each other so much they stop looking at other alternatives. Group members do this to not upset the group, and stick with everyones opinions (group unmanity). Other alternatives are ignored and not considered.
Matching: Conflict Theory
- Constant struggle between those who have political and economic power and those who do not create constant competition between groups of power
Matching: Values
- A idea/standard that is considered important or binding
Matching: Structural Functionalism
- A society is able to function when social institutions (school, work, etc) meet the needs of citizens.
- Social institutions are interdependent on one another
Matching: Prejudice
- Thought or belief about someone/group of people which is not alway true
- Usually negative
- Prejudgment
- Prejudice leads to discrimination
Multiple Choice: Anthropology, psychology, sociology (define each field)
Anthropology:
* Study of humankind
Sociology:
* The study of social behavior and human groups (such as society)
Psychology:
* The study of mental states, human behavior and the human mind
Multiple Choice: Primatology
- Study of primates
Multiple Choice: Cognitive psychology
The study of the brain and its application. It considers mental states (beliefs,motivations and desires)
Multiple Choice: Operant and classical conditioning
Operant conditioning:
* A type of learning that uses rewards and punishment to achieve a desired behaviour
Classical conditioning:
* A type of learning where a once neutral stimulus produces a particular response after being paired with a conditioned stimulus
Multiple Choice: Humanistic Psychology
- Focuses on a patient’s own recovery rather than relying on a therapist.
- Empowers the client.
- Uses qualitative research like unstructured interviews, diaries, open ended questions, etc
Multiple Choice: Factors affecting conformity
Group attractives
* The more attractive a group is (power, prestige, wealth, etc), makes it easier for an individual to conform
Group unanimity
* When more people agree on a similar idea in a group, an individual is likely to conform in order to fit in
Public vs Private responses
* Individuals are more likely to conform publily than privately (free to express their own opinions)
Nature of the task
* The more vague the task is (no clear answer), the more likely an individual is to conform
Multiple Choice: 5 factors influencing human behaviour and culture
Language/culture
* Western language/culture being prominent
* English being main language
Religion
* Differences in religion, western religion being prominent
Politics
* Laws created, who can come in and out of country
Social structure
* Jobs, hierarchies, social status, relationships
Technology
* How advanced we are, jobs, etc
Multiple Choice: Nature vs Nurture (plus Language Development - B.F.Skinner vs Noam Chomsky)
Nature
* BF Skinner’s theory of behaviorism
* Based on our environment
* Believed we learn language from the experiences we have (through operant conditioning/set of habits)
* The person learning a language is at a blank state
* Heredity is the physical elements (skin colours, eye colours, height) and aspects of personality and behavior we inherit from our relatives (apart of genes)
Nature
* Noam Chomsky theory of nativism
* Based on biological factors
* Believe we have a language acquisition device which helps us learn a language
* We go through different stages in our lives which unlock parts of the language acquisition device
* Environment is the external, non inherited influences on human development. This is social, cultural and physical elements of environment
Multiple Choice: Erik Eriksson’s stages of development (brief)
Each stage of life has a developmental task which the individual needs to complete/resolved in order to move onto the next stage
Multiple Choice: Limbic system
- The part of the brain responsible for emotional and behavioral responses, especially behavioral responses needed for survival.
- These behaviors are feeding, reproduction, fight and flight responses and caring for the young
Multiple Choice: Prefrontal cortex
- The most human part of the brain. It is the latest to develop and evolve (well into 20s).
- It plays out scenarios in our heads.
Multiple Choice: Dopamine
A chemical messenger associated with risk, reward and motivation
Multiple Choice: Learning theory
- When we learn our thoughts/beliefs (typically prejudice in this case) through socialization (could be from our families/close friends )
- Learning behaviors through the interaction we have with the environment
- Classical conditioning
- Operant conditioning
Multiple Choice: Extroversion vs Introversion
Extroversion:
* Energetic/Outgoing
* Get energy by being with others
* Direct their interest outward
* Find it draining being alone
Introversion:
* Reserved
* Get energy by being alone
* Direct their interest inward
* Find it draining being with others
Multiple Choice: Symbolic interactionism
- Human interaction on a micro level.
- Emphasizes an individual living within a larger society.
- The individual is at the center of understanding the world through values and beliefs.
- The individual creates their own sense of identity through the reaction of others.
Multiple Choice: Natural Selection
- The ways in which species adapt to their environment for survival (mutations).
- This occurs through mutations, which can be passed down to generations.
Multiple Choice: Intrinsic motivation & Extrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation:
* Motivation that comes from within. This can be playing a sport because it makes you feel good
Extrinsic motivation:
* Motivation that comes from external factors. This can be rewards
Multiple Choice: Primary, Planned, Secondary & Emergent Groups
Planned groups:
- Groups that are planned by its members, an individual or a company.
- They are made for a specific reason.
- Examples are volunteer community, Toronto city council, etc
Emergent groups:
* Groups that are made spontaneously through interaction and conservation.
* This can be groups of friends you met at the gym, or groups made during natural disaster
Primary Groups:
* Face to face and intimate/personal relations with your family and close friends.
* They help share your orientation, worldviews and perspective towards the world.
* They are your key means of socialization
Secondary Groups:
* Groups made up of impersonal and goal oriented relationships.
* They are large and informal, and group members are rarely in contact with one another.
* Example scan be classmates in a university class, members of a sports league (not team members), etc
Multiple Choice: 4 Types of prejudice
Learned Theory:
* When we learn prejudice thoughts and beliefs through socialization, such as from our family and friends
Ignorance theory:
* When we do not care to learn about another culture, and stick to our own prejudice beliefs
Frustration Theory:
* When we take out our frustration and shortcoming on an individual/group for people, especially financial
Competition theory:
* When we believe we have competition with another group of people, typically economic competition, creating distrust
Multiple Choice: Rite of Passage
- A ceremony, event or tradition that is used to mark a change in life stage
Segregation
* The individual is removed from their social roles
Transition
* Can be the longest or shortest stage
* The individual learns their new role and adapts their roles/responsibilities
Reintegration
* The individual is brought back into society with their new role
Multiple Choice: Agents of Socialization
- When people or institutions influence a child’s socialization/social development.
- People can be friends, family, teachers, coaches, etc. Institutions can be school, work, the media, etc.
Short Answer: Socialization
- The process by which an individual acquires self identity and social skills to survive in our culture.
Primary socialization:
* Learning basic values and norms of society from our families (typically during childhood).
* For example, learning manners from your parents when you were little)
Secondary socialization:
* People and institutions we learn social skills/ that socialize us outside our families.
* For example, teachers at school teach you the norms of school (raising up your hand, being polite, waiting your turn, etc).
Anticipatory socialization:
* When we use our knowledge of socialization/social skills to anticipate the behavior needed in a specific situation.
* For example, using social skills to prepare for a job interview (speaking professionally, confidently and not too quickly)
Resolizatation:
* When an individual moves from one behavior/role to another.
* The individual acquires new behaviors, values and attitudes to mark this transition.
* For example, someone moving to a new country needs to adopt new behaviors and roles to fit in their culture.
Short Answer: Types of Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement:
* Adding something to increase a behavior
Negative reinforcement:
* Taking something away to increase a behavior
Short Answer: Types of Conditioning
Classical conditioning:
* A type of learning where once neutral stimulus produces a particular response after being paired with a conditioned stimulus.
* For example, getting hungry when you hear the lunch bell
Operant conditioning:
* A type of learning that uses rewards and punishment to achieve desired behaviors.
* For example, if you get your phone taken away for not studying, you will study more so you can get your phone back
Short Answer: Prejudice and Discrimination
Prejudice:
* a belief/thought about a group of people that is typically negative.
* Prejudice is prejudgment , and leads to discrimination.
* Examples of prejudice are thinking asians are smart, or thinking women belong in the kitchen.
Discrimination:
* treating others differently because of their race, identity, etc.
* This can be people excluding someone because they are not the same skin colour.
Short Answer: Groupthink
- When a group agrees so much with each other that they stop viewing other alternatives.
- Other ideas are ignored to not upset the balance of the group (power is in numbers/group unity)
- For example, if a company has a sales strategy that is not working, and you think of a better alternative, you are less likely to speak up. This is because the company agrees with the current sales strategy that you do not want to upset the balance of the group
Short Answer: Groups and Types of Groups
- A group is made up of two or more people that are in close proximity to each other or are classified together
Planned groups:
* Groups that are planned by its members, an individual or a company.
* They are made for a specific reason.
* Examples are volunteer community, Toronto city council, etc
Emergent groups:
* Groups that are made spontaneously through interaction and conservation.
* This can be groups of friends you met at the gym, or groups made during natural disasters
Primary Groups:
* Face to face and intimate/personal relations with your family and close friends.
* They help share your orientation, worldviews and perspective towards the world.
* They are your key means of socialization and there is a high level of interdependence between the members
Secondary groups:
* Groups made up of impersonal and goal oriented relationships.
* They are large and informal, and group members are rarely in contact with one another.
* Examples can be university class students, members of a sports league (not teammates), etc.
