Exam 3 Study Guide

Question 1

High-probability activities, low-probability activities and power to reinforce

Answer 1

Probability-differential theory assumes that a high-probability activity such as recess, will reinforce a less probable activity such as sitting in class attentively. which in probability-differential theory is any activity who probability of occurring is greater than that of the reinforced activity. That can be used to get the desired behavior. (188)

*Premack’s probability-differential theory indicates that activities can serve as reinforcement.  
With higher-probability activities reinforcing lower-probability activities. 

Question 2

Response deprivation theory by Timberlake and Allison

Answer 2

Is created by the establishment of a behavior-reinforcement contingency causes an activity to become a reinforcement. For instance, a rat fed the same amount of food gets use to it, so if you restrict the amount of food given, the rat is motivated to return to the same amount, thus a reinforcement. (191)

*The idea that when a contingency restricts access to an activity, it causes that activity to become reinforcement  

Question 3

Premack’s principle

Answer 3

It’s performing the activity, not the activity itself. Eating is the reinforcer not the food. (191)

Question 4

Premack’s probability-differential theory and how has it been utilized in the real world

Answer 4

Premack’s theory indicates that activities can serve as reinforcement, with higher-probability activities reinforcing lower-probability activities level. Higher exciting activities will reinforce low, uninteresting, activities such as studying. It has been utilized with kids with ADHD, classrooms, workplaces (casual Fridays) and such

*Probability-Differential Theory
The idea that an activity will have reinforcing properties when its probability of occurrence is greater than that of the reinforced activity  

Question 5

Matching Law allocate responding in proportion to the level of reinforcement

Answer 5

Matching law is when an animal has free access to two different schedules of reinforcement, its response is proportional to the level of reinforcement available on each schedule. the matching law assumes that an individual’s choice behavior will be divided proportionally according to the level of reinforcement available on each schedule. (195 & 197)

*Matching Law  
When an animal has free access to two different schedules of reinforcement; its response is proportional to the level of reinforcement available on each schedule 

*Maximizing law
The goal of behavior in a choice task, which is to obtain as many reinforcements as possible 

-The matching law states that the rate of responding of two operant responses is the direct proportion to the level of reinforcement available through each operant response. 

Question 6

Mowrer’s two-factor theory of avoidance conditioning

Answer 6

The first stage, fear is conditioned to the environmental condition that precede an aversive event. In Mowrer’s view, although it appears that we are avoiding painful events, we are actually escaping a feared stimulus. Rats shocked in a white room avoid it because the fear the white room and not the shock, in his view the fear reduction that resulted from the termination of the feared stimulus (white room) rewarded the rat’s behavior. (202)

*Two-Factor Theory of Avoidance Learning  
Mowrer’s view that in the 1st stage, fear is conditioned through the Pavlovian conditioning process, and in the 2nd stage, an instrumental or operant response is acquired that terminates the feared stimulus  

 

*Two-Factor Theory of Punishment  
Mowrer’s view that fear is conditioned to the environmental events present during punishment in the 1st stage; any behavior that terminates the feared stimulus will be acquired through instrumental conditioning in the 2nd stage; the reinforcement of the escape response causes an animal or person to exhibit the escape response rather than the punished response in the punishment situation  

 

Question 7

Levis and Boyd extinguish fear

Answer 7

It is not the number of extinction trials but rather the duration of exposure to the CS that determines the fear reduction and thus the elimination of an avoidance response. The longer the exposure the weaker the avoidance response. e.g. fear of heights the more time spent up high and not the number of times the person is down, determines the amount of extinction. (202)

Question 8

D’Amato anticipatory pain escape behavior

Answer 8

An aversive event, such as shock, elicits an unconditioned pain response, which motivates an escape behavior. as a result, environmental cues present during shock can lead to an anticipatory pain response or conditioned fear response. Anticipatory relief response or conditioned relief response is the stimuli associated with the termination of the aversive event (203)

• D’Amato suggested that the Pavlovian conditioning of the anticipatory pain response to the environmental cues associated with an aversive event motivates escape from these cues.  
• In D’Amato’s view, the termination of pain produces an unconditioned relief response and the establishment of the anticipatory relief response provides motivation to approach the cues associated with relief.  

Question 9

Guthrie effective punishment antagonist/compatible

Answer 9

According to Guthrie, the punished response will be suppressed only if the response conditioned to cues associated with the aversive event is incompatible with the punished response. For example, punishment will suppress bar pressing, in Guthrie’s view, if a response incompatible with the bar pressing has been conditioned to the operant chamber. (207)

• Guthrie proposed that punishment elicits a specific behavior. 
• According to Guthrie, if the response elicited by punishment is incompatible with the punished behavior punishment will suppress the undesired behavior, but punishment may increase the behavior if it elicits a compatible response.  

Question 10

Estes competition of motives

Answer 10

In Estes’s view the primary mechanism underlying the influence of punishment on behavior is the competition of motives. If a stimulus precedes punishment, it develops the ability to inhibit the motive associated with the punished behavior. Thus, Estes asserted that punishment works because an animal or person is no longer motivated, and therefore the punished response is no longer elicited. (208)

-Estes’s motivational view suggests that punishment reduces motivational level the absence of motivation suppresses the undesired response.

Question 11

Operant psychology using bar pressing to examine behavior

Answer 11

Psychologists investing operant conditioning use the bar-press response because many different species acquire it easily. But the same rules governing the acquisition or extincion of an operant response could be demonstrated by using a maze or alley to study the instrumental conditioning process. . Actually the unnaturalness of bar pressing is thought to be desirable because the animal comes into the conditioning situation without any past experience that may affect its behavior. the following statements by skinner (1938) illustrates the belief that the study of any behavior reveals specific laws governing the operant conditioning: “The general topography of operant behavior is not important because most if not all specific operants are conditioned. I suggest that the dynamic properties of operant behavior may be studies with a single reflex” (212)

Question 12

Behavior systems approach and instinctual behavior patterns

Answer 12

An animal possesses instinctive behavior systems such as feeding, mating, social bonding, care of young, and defense. each instinctive behavior system is independent and serves a specific function or need within the animal. Timberlakes (2001), behavior systems approach suggests that learning evolved as a modifier of existing behavior systems. The impact of learning is to change the integration, tuning, instigation, or linkages within a particular behavior system. (213 and 214)

*Behavior Systems Approach  
The idea that learning evolved as a modifier of innate behavior systems and functions to change the integration, tuning, instigation, or linkages within a particular system  

• Animals possess highly organized instinctive behavior systems that serve specific needs or functions in the animal. 
• In Timberlake’s view, learning modifies instinctive behavior systems and intensifies a motivational mode or changes the integration or sensitivity in the perceptual-motor module.  
• A wide variety of instinctive behaviors occur in the time period following reinforcement. 
• Schedule-induced behavior appears to reflect the elicitation of instinctive consummatory behavior by periodic reinforcements.   

Question 13

How does a predisposition affect learning?

Answer 13

*Predisposition  

Instances where learning occurs more rapidly or in a different form than expected  

Question 14

Timberlake constraints on learning and the animal’s instinctive behavior system

Answer 14

A constraint on learning occurs when an animal learns less rapidly or less completely than expected. According to Timberlake, constraints on learning occur when environmental circumstances is not suited to the animal’s instinctive behavior system. (215)

• In Timberlake’s view, learning modifies instinctive behavior systems and intensifies a motivational mode or changes the integration or sensitivity in the perceptual-motor module.  
• A wide variety of instinctive behaviors occur in the time period following reinforcement. 

Question 15

Instinctive drift and animals that have it

Answer 15

Instinctive drift is the deterioration of an operant behavior with continued reinforcement. Pigs are an example of a species with instinctive drift. According to Breland and Breland, the elicitation of instinctive food-foraging and food -handling behaviors by the presentation of food caused the decline in the effectiveness of an operant response reinforced by food. These instinctive behaviors, strengthened by food reinforcement eventually dominated the operant behavior. (216)

*Instinctive Drift  
When operant behavior deteriorates despite continued reinforcement due to the elicitation of instinctive behaviors  

Question 16

Animal misbehavior and roots in classical and operant conditioning occurring together

Answer 16

Animal misbehavior does not occur in most operant conditioning situations because (1) the cues present during the conditioning do not resemble the natural cues eliciting instinctive foraging and food-handling behaviors, and (2) these instinctive behaviors are not reinforced. (218)

• Some operant responses, although initially performed effectively, deteriorated with continued training despite repeated food reinforcements.   
• Animal misbehavior occurs when  
  (1) The stimuli present during operant conditioning resemble the natural cues controlling food-gathering activities.  
  (2) These stimuli are paired with food reinforcement, and  
  (3) The instinctive food-gathering behaviors the stimuli elicit during conditioning are reinforced.  

 

Question 17

Timberlake and constraint on learning

Answer 17

Constraint happens when learning occurs more rapidly or slowly than expected.

Question 18

Superstitious behaviors

Answer 18

Animals have associated with the superstitious behaviors with reinforcement. They identified two types of behaviors produced when reinforcement (e.g., food) occurs on a regular basis: (1) terminal behavior and (2) interim behaviors. Terminal behavior occurs during the last few seconds of the interval between reinforcement presentations, and it is reinforcement oriented. Interim behavior, in contrast, is not reinforcement oriented. Although contiguity influences the development of terminal behavior, interim behavior does not occur contiguously with reinforcement. Terminal behavior falls between interim behavior and reinforcement but does not interfere with the exhibition of interim behavior. (219 and 220)

*Superstitious behaviors
A “ritualistic” stereotyped pattern of behavior exhibited during the interval between reinforcements  

Question 19

Schedule-induced polydipsia and alcoholism

Answer 19

Schedule-induced polydipsia (SIP) is when animals are reinforced with food on a FI schedule. SIP is a good animal model for human alcoholism. ANimals on an intermittent schedule of reinforcement exhibit behaviors characteristic of human alcoholism. Giving animals for instance alcohol and then use an interval schedule of reinforcement the found that intermittent schedules of reinforcement produce excessive consumptions of alcohol. (222)

*Schedule-Induced Polydipsia (SIP) 
The high levels of water consumption following food reinforcement on an interval schedule. SIP appears to be a good model of human alcoholism.   

Question 20

Long-delay learning

Answer 20

The association of a flavor with an illness or positive nutritional consequences that occurred even several hours after the flavor was consumed  

Question 21

Concurrent interference view of flavor aversion learning

Answer 21

When the stimulus occurring closest to the UCS will become able to elicit the CR. If another stimulus intervenes between the CS and UCS, it will produce a concurrent interference. In flavor aversion the amount of concurrent interference was related to the intensity of the vinegar: The stronger the vinegar, the weaker the aversion to saccharin. (referring to study of rats given saccharin (CS) followed by illness 75 minutes later. the introduced second flavor and reported a weaker aversion to saccharin when vinegar rather than water was used as the second solution, indicating that the presentation of vinegar interfere with the establishment of the saccharin aversion. (227)

*Concurrent Interference  
The prevention of learning when a stimulus intervenes between the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli or when a behavior occurs between the operant response and reinforcement  

*Learned-Safety Theory of Flavor Aversion Learning 
The recognition that a food can be safely consumed wen illness does not follow food consumption  

Question 22

Damage to the amygdala and flavor aversion conditioning

Answer 22

Damage to the central nucleus of the amygdala impaired flavor aversion learning. It appears that the lateral and central amygdala play a central role in all aversive conditioning experiences– that is, experiences involving both pain and illness. (228)

*Learned-Safety Theory of Flavor Aversion Learning 
The recognition that a food can be safely consumed wen illness does not follow food consumption  

-The lateral and central amygdala play an important role in flavor aversion learning as well as fear conditioning. 

Question 23

Imprinting and sensitive periods

Answer 23

Imprinting is the development of a social attachment to stimuli experienced during a sensitive period of development. Imprinting can still occur after sensitive development periods when sufficient experience is given. The sensitive period for attachment differs among species. (233 and slides)

*Imprinting  
The Development of a social attachment to a stimulus experienced during a sensitive period of development  

*Secure Relationship 
The establishment of a strong bond between a mother who is sensitive and responsive to her infant  

• Young animals develop strong attachments to their mothers through the imprinting process.  
• Animals are most likely to imprint during a specified period of development called A sensitive period. 
• The animal’s attachment to the imprinted object reflects both associative and Instinctive processes.  

Question 24

Human infants’ attachments to anxious mothers

Answer 24

Children of indifferent mothers frequently cried and were apparently distressed. Their alarm was not reduced by the presence of the mother. Also these children avoided contact with their mothers, either because the mothers were uninterested or because the mothers actually rejected them. This mother-infant interaction is labeled as an anxious relationship. (235)

*Anxious Relationship 
The relationship developed between a mother and her infant when the mother is indifferent to her infant  

Question 25

Lorenz’s imprinting relationship to Ainsworth’s findings about human infant’s attachment

Answer 25

Lorenz suggested that imprinting is a genetically programmed form of learning. Kavach and Hess found that chicks approached the imprinting object despite the abuse. after the abuse discontinued, the clinging resumes. Compared to Ainsworth’s findings that infants showed little attachment to anxious or indifferent mothers and more attachment to those with secure relationships.. Age plays a pivotal role. (233 and 234)

Question 26

Harlow and infant monkey’s attachment preferences

Answer 26

Harlow observed that young primates to determine if fear reduction is responsible for attachment to mother. They found that when aroused the infants were extremely motivated to reach their cloth mother. in contrast frightened young primates showed no desire to approach the wire mother. (234)

Question 27

Negative emotions and threats

Answer 27

According to Fredickson and Branigan, the results of their test indicated that positive emotions broaden a person’s thought –action repertoire, whereas a negative emotion, elicited by threat or danger, limits the ways in which a person can respond to threat or danger. (slides)

-Fredrickson and her colleagues demonstrate that positive emotions broaden a human’s thought-action repertoire while negative emotions limit the ways in which threat or danger is met. 

Question 28

Deprivation and medial forebrain bundle with reinforcement

Answer 28

Deprivation is a physiological need that increases the incentive value of reinforcement. The relative deprivation caused by eating college cafeteria food arouses the medial forebrain bundle and intensified bother the motivation to eat your favorite meal and the pleasure derived from it. (242)

Question 29

Deprivation increases arousal in the nigrostriatal pathway when there is an opportunity for reinforcement

Answer 29

Deprivation increases arousal in the nigrostriatal pathway by involving the present moment that has triggered the tegmentostriatal pathways which mediates the influence of motivation on reinforcement, while the nigrostriatal pathway is involved in memory consolidation. Reinforcement happens when the association of the stimulus and the memory are formed. (243)

• Opiate agonists and dopamine agonists activate different receptors in the tegmentostriatal pathway with the same end result increased dopamine activity in the nucleus accumbens.  
• High levels of dopamine activity are associated with compulsive drug use, gambling, sexual behavior, and spending behavior, which are behaviors associated with addiction.  

Question 30

Dopamine and regulating the behavioral effects of reinforcement

Answer 30

Dopamine governs the activity of the neurons that connect the ventral tegmental area to the nucleus accumbens, septum, and prefrontal cortex; dopamine also plays an important role in mediating the effect of reinforcement on behavior. (244)

Question 31

Cognitive learning approaches

Answer 31

There are two different approaches. The stimulus -response (S-R) associative theorists advocate a mechanistic view of the learning process. Cognitive theorists propose a flexible view of behavior, which contrasts with the inflexible approach of the S-R theorists. (250)

*Cognitive Theories
The view that learning involves a recognition of when events will occur and an understanding of how to influence those events

Question 32

Hull and types of primary drives

Answer 32

Drive is an intense internal force that motivates behavior. These are hunger, thirst that motivate behavior to reduce the drive and restore homeostasis. These include the incentive motivation, the arousal of a reward or getting one. Habit strength, the strength of the stimuli and response to stimuli produce when response drive reduces. and the inhibition is when an action fails to get the reward. (252)

• Hull theorized that a nonspecific intense internal arousal-drive-motivates behavior.
• According to Hull, specific stimuli are capable of eliciting several behaviors, and the behavior with the strongest bond (or habit strength) will be repeated. the bond strengthens if the behavior produces drive reduction.

Question 33

Methods of (food deprivation, shock, etc) to induce drive and motivate behavior

Answer 33

Hull’s original theory (1943) assumed that drive reduction or reward only influences the strength of the S-R bond: a more valuable reward produces greater drive reduction and, thus, establishes a stronger habit. (slides)

Question 34

Spence and an anticipatory goal response

Answer 34

Spence’s hot dog example: When a reward (a hot dog) is obtained in a goal environment (concession stand), this reward elicits an unconditioned goal response. For example, when the hungry person smells and tastes the hot dog, the hot dog inities an internal response. This internal response (e.g., salivation, gastric juice, insulin_ motivates the person to eat the hot dog. The characteristics of the unconditioned goal response resemble those of Hull’s drive stat: they represent an internal arousal that motivates behavior. The internal response intensifies as the person eats. Until eating is inhibited, the hot dog continues to elicit the internal goal response. The reward value determines the intensity of the goals response; the greater the rewards magnitude,. the stronger the goal response. (256)

-Spence suggested that the association of environmental events with reward causes the development of a conditioned anticipatory goal response, which acts to motivate the approach to reward.

Question 35

Amsel and an unconditioned frustration response

Answer 35

Amsel proposed that the frustration state differs from the goal response. Non-reward presented in a situation that was previously rewarded produces an unconditioned frustration response. This frustration response motivates escape behavior. The cues present during the frustration become conditioned to produce an anticipatory frustration response. This response acts to motivate the animal to avoid a potentially frustrating situation. (257)

-Amsel proposed that an anticipatory frustration response is conditioned as a result of the association of environmental events with nonreward, which acts to motivate avoidance of nonreward.

Question 36

Guthrie and Contiguity

Answer 36

Guthrie proposed that contiguity, not reward, was sufficient to establish an S-R connection. He believed that learning is a simple process governed entirely by contiguity. Guthrie also proposed that a rewards should be presented immediately after the appropriate response. If the reward is delayed, actions that occur between the appropriate response and the reward will be exhibited when the stimulus is encountered again. Thus poor contiguity can result in accidentally rewarding unwanted behavior. (slides)

Question 37

Guthrie’s theory of learning

Answer 37

Guthrie proposed that learning is not gradual but occurs in a single trial. The strength of an S-R association is at maximum value after a single pairing of the stimulus and response. He did acknowledge that behavior improves in strength and efficiency with experience. (slides)

• Guthrie suggested that when a stimulus and response occur together, they automatically become associated and when the stimulus is encountered again, it will produce the response.
• According to Guthrie, reward alters the stimulus environment thereby precluding the acquisition of any new competing S-R associations.
• Practice increases the number of stimuli associated with a response and thereby increases the intensity of that response.
• Guthrie proposed 3 methods (Fatigue, Threshold, and Incompatible Stimuli) of breaking a habit, or replacing an old undesired habit with a new habit.

Question 38

Single-trial learning

Answer 38

Guthris assumed that learning occurs on a single trial; this is, a single, simultaneous pairing of a stimulus and a response results in the development of the maximum S-R associative strength. (261)

Question 39

Tolman –and esp. cathexis and his influence in psychology

Answer 39

Tolman proposed that our behavior has both direction and purpose. He argued that behavior is goal oriented; that is; we are motivated either to achieve a desired condition or to avoid an aversive situation. Cathexis is the environmental events can acquire motivational properties though association with either a primary drive or a reward. The ability of deprivation states to motivate behavior transfer to the stimuli present during the deprivation state. Positive cathexis lead organisms to approach stimulus while negative cathexis lead organisms to avoid stimulus. His influence on psychology forced Hull to make changes to his drive theory. (263 and slides)

*Cathexis
The idea that the ability of deprivation states to motivate behavior transfers to the stimuli present during the deprivation state

• Tolman proposed that behavior is goal oriented an animal is motivated to reach specific goals and will continue to search until the goal is reached.
• According to Tolman, expectations determine the specific behavior we perform to obtain reward or avoid punishment.
• Tolman proposed that reward is not necessary for learning to occur and that reward affects performance but not learning.

Question 40

Tolman equivalence belief principle

Answer 40

Tolman’s equivalence belief principle is the idea that the reaction to a secondary reward is the same as the reaction to the original goal. This principle is comparable to Spence’s anticipatory goal concept which environmental cues present during reward become associated with the reward and subsequently produce a conditioned anticipatory goal response.For instance our motivation to obtain money reflects our identification of money with desired goal objects such as shelter and food. (256, 264 and slides)

-The idea that the reaction to a secondary reward is the same as the original goal

Question 41

Blisspoint

Answer 41

The concept of bliss point comes from economic theory and assumes that a person acts to minimize cost and maximize gains. The blisspoint is the unrestricted level of performance of both behaviors. (192)

*Blisspoint
The free operant level of two responses 

Question 42

Mowrer and the first stage avoidance behavior

Answer 42

The first stage, fear is conditioned to the environmental condition that precede an aversive event. In Mowrer’s view, although it appears that we are avoiding painful events, we are actually escaping a feared stimulus. Rats shocked in a white room avoid it because the fear the white room and not the shock, in his view the fear reduction that resulted from the termination of the feared stimulus (white room) rewarded the rat’s behavior. (202)

Question 43

Thorndike punishment and the strength of a stimulus response bond.

Answer 43

Suggested that punishment weakened the strength of a stimulus response (S-R) bond. the recovery of responding shortly after exposure to a mild punishment clearly contradicts this view of punishment. if punishment acted to weaken S-R bond, the effect would be permanent, not temporary. clearly, the effect of punishment on behavior must be caused by a process other than weakening S-R strength.

-Thorndike suggested that punishment acts to weaken an S-R association. 

Question 44

Mowrer’s two-factor theory of punishment

Answer 44

Fear motivates an avoidance behavior, which enables an animal or person to prevent punishment. Also, the occurrence of the avoidance behavior causes an animal or person not to exhibit the punished response, which is thus responsible for the suppressive effect of the punishment. thus, the suppressive effect of punishment results from elicitation of a behavior other than the punished behavior. (208)

-Mowrer’s view that fear is conditioned to the environmental events present during punishment in the 1st stage; any behavior that terminates the feared stimulus will be acquired through instrumental conditioning in the 2nd stage; the reinforcement of the escape response causes an animal or person to exhibit the escape response rather than the punished response in the punishment situation