Exam 2 Study Guide Flashcards
According to Pavlov how similar is the conditioned response to the unconditioned response?
In many cases, the CR and UCR are not the same
In fact, in some cases, the CR and UCR seem opposite to each other The result is that the CS and UCS elicit opposite or “opponent” responses
Stimulus-substitution theory: States that the pairing of the CS and the UCS enables the CS to later elicit the UCR, but as the CR
- The CS also stimulates a distinct area of the brain
- When the UCS follows the CS, the brain centers associated with the CS and UCS are active at the same time
- The simultaneous activity in two neural centers leads to a new functional neural pathway between the active centers
• The new neural connection causes:
– Exposure to the CS to activate the neural center which processes the CS
– Activation of the CS neural center arouses the UCS neural center
– The UCS neural center activates the response center for the UCR
– Which allows the CS to elicit the CR
- Because the response was generated by environmental exposure to the CS (rather than the UCS), we refer to it as the CR
- The CS becomes a substitute for the UCS and elicits the same response as the UCS
The Removal of Negative Reinforcement
– An escape response is eliminated when an aversive event continues despite the escape response
• However, the response will continue for some time until the organism learns that the escape response no longer terminates the aversive event
– The strength of the escape response during acquisition affects resistance to extinction
• The greater the acquisition training, the slower the extinction of the escape behavior
Analgesia
A reduced sensitivity to painful events
Hyperalgesia
An increase sensitivity to a painful event
Brain system responses for fear and pain. Are they the same or separate?
Same, both show in amygdala.
Siegel conditioned response and unconditioned response are same or different?
They’re different. The UCR to morphine is analgesia, or reduced sensitivity to pain, and the CR is hyperalgesia, or a increased sensitivity to pain; the UCR to insulin is hypoglycemia, and the CR is hyperglycemia; the UCR to alcohol is hypothermia, and the CR is hyperthermia.
Siegel morphine conditioning CR and UCR and analgesia/hyperalgesia
- An example of this can be found in studies in which the United States is morphine.
- The UCR to morphine is analgesia, reduced sensitivity to pain
- The CR to neutral stimuli paired with morphine administration is hyperalgesia, an increased sensitivity to pain
Morphine and light research
- Hall and Channell (1985) showed that repeated exposure to light (CS) led to habituation of the orienting response to that stimulus.
- They also found that later pairings of the light (CS) with milk (UCS) yielded a reduced CR compared with control animals who did not experience preexposure to the light CS
- They also found that later pairings of the light (CS) with milk (UCS) yielded a reduced CR compared with control animals who did not experience preexposure to the light CS.
Opposing response and overdose from taking the same amounts of heroin research
Siegel noted that drug overdoses can occur when a drug is consumed in a new environment as a result of the absence of the conditioned opponent response.
Exposure to small doses of an addicted drug cause what types of symptoms (large/small?)
Drug tolerance: With repeated use higher doses are required to produce the same effects.
Conditioned withdrawal response: when environmental cues associated with withdrawal produce a conditioned craving and motivation to resume drug use.
The opponent process theory suggests that drug addiction is mainly an attempt to reduce the aversiveness of the affective after-reaction to the drugs such as the bad hangovers, the amphetamine “crashes,” and the irritability that comes from not having the usual cigarette.
The opponent process interpretation of drug addiction as escape from the misery of withdrawal is also supported by a large body of neuroscience evidence.
Addicts are not “trapped” by the pleasure they derive from the drug. Rather, they take the drug to reduce withdrawal pains. (Other factors involved in drug addiction will be considered in subsequent chapters.)
AESOP: Wagner’s idea that the conditioned stimulus (CS) becomes able to elicit the secondary A2 component of the unconditioned response (UCR) as the conditioned response (CR) and the A2 component is sometimes the opposite of and sometimes the same as the A1 component
• It is based on the idea that there are two distinct UCR sequences – A sensory sequence – An emotive sequence
• The sensory and emotive attributes of an unconditioned stimulus activate separate response sequences
• The latency of the sensory and emotive activity sequences can also differ
• This leads to different optimal CS–UCS intervals for the emotive and sensory components
• There are several important aspects of AESOP
– A CS may activate a strong sensory CR but only a weak emotive CR (or vice versa)
• This can explain the lack of correspondence between response measures of conditioning
• A sensory A2 neural activity may elicit a discrete response while the emotive A2 neural activity may produce a diffuse reaction
• Finally, two unconditioned stimuli might activate the same emotive A2 activity but different sensory A2 activities
– This would lead to both similarities and differences in the responses that separate UCSs condition
Rescorla–Wagner model
• The amount of associative strength gained on a particular training trial depends on the level of prior training.
• Because the typical learning curve negatively accelerates, more associative strength will accrue on early trials than on later ones.
– The rate of conditioning varies depending on the CS and UCS used.
• Associative strength accrues quickly to some stimuli but slowly to others.
Rescorla–Wagner model and why blocking occurs
The view that a particular unconditioned stimulus (UCS) can support only a specific level of conditioning and that when the two or more stimuli are paired with a UCS, each stimulus must compete for the associative strength available for conditioning
BLOCKING OCCURS because as a result of conditioning associative strength to one stimulus, thereby preventing conditioning to a second stimulus due to a lack of available associative strength.
The effects of preexposure to the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) on Pavlovian conditioning
- the effect caused by exposure to the UCS prior to conditioning; it impairs later conditioning when a CS is paired with that UCS
- Rescorla–Wagner model predicts that when a salient and nonsalient cue are presented together with the UCS, the salient cue will accrue more associative strength than the nonsalient cue
Strong stimuli vs weak stimuli’s ability to accrue the most associative strength?
- The rate of conditioning varies depending on the CS and UCS used. Associative strength accrues quickly to some stimuli but slowly to others.
- Associative strength accrues quickly to some stimuli but slowly to others.
Rescorla–Wagner model predicts that when a salient and nonsalient cue are presented together with the UCS, the salient cue will accrue more associative strength than the nonsalient cue
Overshadowing: salient cue and a non-salient cue are presented together
Overshadowing: In a compound conditioning situation, the prevention of conditioning to one stimulus due to the presence of a more salient or intense stimulus
• Overshadowing does not always occur when two cues of different salience are paired with a UCS In some circumstances the presence of a salient cue produces a stronger CR than would have occurred had the less salient cue been presented alone with the UCS
Reinforcement
An event (or termination of an event) that increases the frequency of the operant behavior that preceded it
Instrumental Conditioning
A conditioning procedure in which the environment constrains the opportunity for reward and a specific behavior can obtain reward
Operant Conditioning
When a specific response produces reinforcement and the frequency of the response determines the amount of reinforcement obtained
Primary Reinforcement
An activity whose reinforcing properties are innate
Secondary Reinforcement
An event that has developed its reinforcing properties through its association with primary reinforcements
Negative Reinforcement
The termination of an aversive event, which reinforces the behavior that proceeded it
Shaping by Successive Approximations
A technique of acquiring a desired behavior by first selecting a highly occurring operant behavior, then slowly changing the contingency until the desired behavior is learned
Ratio schedules versus interval schedules of reinforcement
A contingency that specifies that a certain number of behaviors are necessary to produce reinforcement
Variable/fixed-interval
A contingency in which there is an average interval of time between available reinforcements, but the interval varies from one reinforcement to the next reinforcement becoming available
Variable/fixed-ratio
A contingency in which an average number of behaviors produces reinforcement, but the actual number of responses required to produce reinforcement varies over the course of training
Differential Reinforcement Schedule.
A schedule of reinforcement in which a specific number of behaviors must occur within a specified time in order for reinforcement to occur
How do we get high responding?
• Variable-ratio schedules: The number of responses required to produce reinforcement varies from trial to trial – The schedule designation reflects the average number of responses required for reinforcement over a block of trials
Positive Contrast (or elation effect)
The effect in which a shift from a low to high reward magnitude produces a greater level of responding than if the reward magnitude had always been high
Negative Contrast (or depression) effect
The effect in which a shift from high to low reward magnitude produces a lower level of responding than if the reward magnitude had always been low
Emotion of Frustration
The medial amygdala plays a significant role in producing the emotion of frustration when a goal is blocked
Changes in behavior that follow the discontinuance of reinforcement
• Extinction: The elimination or suppression of a response caused by the discontinuation of reinforcement or the removal of the unconditioned stimulus
• When reinforcement is first discontinued, the rate of responding remains high – Under some conditions, it even increases before it begins to decreas
•
Extinction
When the discontinuance of reinforcement leads to the suppression of the instrumental or operant response
Contingency Management
The use of a contingent reinforcement and nonreinforcement to increase the frequency of appropriate behavior and eliminate inappropriate behaviors
Influence of contiguity and reward magnitude on instrumental or operant conditioning.
• Reward can lead to the acquisition of an instrumental response if it immediately follows the behavior
– Learning is impaired if reward is delayed
– The longer the delay, the less conditioning occurs
Behavior Modification
Techniques for changing behavior that rely on Pavlovian conditioning or instrumental or operant conditioning
Self-Reinforcement
a way to pat yourself on the back for progress towards the goal or standard you have established. Self-reinforcement is an invaluable link between the response and the outcome. The more often that a person can pick out a target behavior and consistently give him or her or herself reinforcement for that behavior, the more likely it will occur in the future.
Token Economies
A contingency management program where tokens are used as secondary reinforcement for appropriate behaviors
Escape response
a behavioral response to an aversive event that is reinforced by the termination of the aversive event
Escape From Aversive Events
Several factors play a role in determining whether an organism learns to escape aversive events
– Intensity of the aversive stimulus
– Absence of reinforcement
– Impact of delayed reinforcement
• There are also many factors that affect the efficiency of the escape response
Intensity of the Aversive Event
– The more intense the situation, the greater the motivation to escape it
– Researchers have identified examples of situations that increase the intensity of the aversive event
– Higher cost of helping another individual
– Higher likelihood of failure on a task
– Higher level of pain (i.e., electric shock) or sensory impact (i.e., noise or light)
The Magnitude of Negative Reinforcement
– The likelihood of escape behavior depends on the amount of negative reinforcement
• This may be defined as the degree of decrease in the severity of an aversive event
– Campbell and Kraeling (1953) exposed rats to a 400-V electric shock in the start box of an alley. Upon reaching the goal box, the shock was reduced to 0, 100, 200, or 300 V.
The Magnitude of Negative Reinforcement (cont)
– Campbell and Kraeling reported that the greater the reduction in shock intensity, the faster the rats escaped from the 400-V electric shock.
– Other experiments have found that the level of escape behavior directly relates to the level of shock reduction the escape response induces (Bower, Fowler,
The Impact of Delayed Reinforcement
– The longer reinforcement is delayed after an escape response,
- The slower the acquisition of the escape behavior and
- The lower the final level of escape performance
The Elimination of an Escape Response
An escape response can be terminated by – No longer presenting the aversive event – No longer terminating the aversive stimulus following the escape response
• In other words, by removal of negative reinforcement
The Absence of Aversive Events
– Elimination of an escape response also occurs when the aversive event is no longer experienced
– Nevertheless, the organism exhibits a number of responses even when the aversive event no longer occurs
• This may occur because the cues that predict the aversive event are still present
When can the escape response be eliminated (extinguished)?
An escape response can be terminated by – No longer presenting the aversive event – No longer terminating the aversive stimulus following the escape response
• In other words, by removal of negative reinforcement
The Removal of Negative Reinforcement
– An escape response is eliminated when an aversive event continues despite the escape response
• However, the response will continue for some time until the organism learns that the escape response no longer terminates the aversive event– The strength of the escape response during acquisition affects resistance to extinction
• The greater the acquisition training, the slower the extinction of the escape behavior
The Absence of Aversive Events
– Elimination of an escape response also occurs when the aversive event is no longer experienced
– Nevertheless, the organism exhibits a number of responses even when the aversive event no longer occurs
• This may occur because the cues that predict the aversive event are still present
Passive Avoidance
A contingency in which the absence of responding leads to the prevention of an aversive event
Active Avoidance
An overt response to a feared stimulus that prevents an aversive event
Punishment
A means of eliminating undesired behavior by using an aversive event that is contingent upon the occurrence of the inappropriate behavior
Explain the differences between positive and negative punishment.
Positive punishment: addition of an aversive event (e.g., spanking) to reduce the undesirable behavior
Negative punishment: removal of an appetitive event (watching TV) to reduce an unwanted behavior
Time out from reinforcement
A negative punishment technique in which an inappropriate behavior leads to a period of time during which reinforcement is unavailable
Response Cost
A negative punishment technique in which an undesired response results in either the withdrawal of or failure to obtain reinforcement
What did Skinner conclude about the effects of a punishing response?
- The suppressive effects of punishment may generalize to similar behaviors, and the inhibition of these behaviors may be undesirable
– Recipient of punishment may not recognize the contingency between punishment and the undesirable behavior. The aversive events may be perceived as independent of behavior
According to Skinner what variables determine whether or not punishment will be effective?
- We may continue to use punishment because we see punishment modeled as a means of behavior change – Although modeling can be a negative consequence of punishment, it can also show punishment being effective
- There are situations in which differential reinforcement cannot be easily applied but punishment can be readily employed
Know the negative consequences of the use of punishment to suppress undesired behavior.
• The intent of punishment is to suppress an undesired behavior
• If punishment is effective the frequency, intensity, or both of the inappropriate behavior will decline
Punishment is the response-contingent presentation of an aversive event
Pain-Induced Aggression
Anger and aggressive behavior elicited by punishment
Parents use aggressive forms of punishment on a child’s home and school behavior
• Two sources of evidence suggest that children who are physically punished model aggressive behavior
– Physically punished children use the same method of punishment when trying to control the behavior of other children
– Correlational studies report a strong relationship between parental use of punishment and the level of aggression in the child
Factors of effective punishment
If punishment is effective the frequency, intensity, or both of the inappropriate behavior will decline
Punishment appears to suppress unwanted behaviors
• However, the suppression is often temporary
In some cases, however, punishment permanently suppresses unwanted behaviors
The Severity of Punishment
- The more severe the punishment, the more likely it is to suppress unwanted behavior
- If mild punishment does lead to behavior suppression, it is usually short lived
- The more intense the punishment, the more complete the suppression of behavior
The Consistency of Punishment
- Punishment must be consistent to suppress behavior
- Punishment should be administered with each and every occurrence of the unwanted behavior
- Very difficult to do this in real life
Delay of Punishment
- Punishment must be immediate to suppress behavior
* Immediate administration of punishment is often difficult or impossible in real life
Treatments for phobic of behavior
Flooding- Also known as a response prevention, a behavior therapy in which a phobia is eliminated by forced exposure to the feared stimulus without an aversive consequence
Response Prevention- Also known as flooding, a behavior therapy in which a phobia is eliminated by forced exposure to the feared stimulus without an aversive consequence
Systematic Desensitization
A behavioral technique whereby a person is gradually exposed to an anxiety-producing object, event or place while being engaged in some type of relaxation at the same time in order to reduce the systems of anxiety
Has 2 steps that could be applied to fear in order to reduce the anxiety involved such as
Relaxation Training
First, a clinician or behavioral therapist would train the client with the fear of flying in relaxation techniques. This is very similar to meditation, and there are scripts with exact wording that can be followed. The therapist could begin by asking the client to close his eyes, sit in a comfortable position, and relax all muscles while paying close attention to breathing slowly and naturally. The therapist will read through the script and encourage the client to relax each muscle in his body from his head to his toes. The goal is to get the client into a completely relaxed physical state.
Hierarchy of Fears
The next step in the systematic desensitization process involves constructing what is called a hierarchy of fears, which is a list of the things that the person identifies as fearful related to flying in order from the least to the most anxiety-provoking. The list could look something like this:
Looking at a toy plane (least).
Hearing or watching a plane fly in the sky.
Going to an airport.
Walking onto a plane.
Counterconditioning
A behavior therapy procedure that uses classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behavior; includes exposure therapies and aversive conditioning
Punishment has been successful for which behaviors in humans?
Punishment appears to suppress unwanted behaviors
• However, the suppression is often temporary In some cases, however, punishment permanently suppresses unwanted behaviors
The Severity of Punishment
- The more severe the punishment, the more likely it is to suppress unwanted behavior
- If mild punishment does lead to behavior suppression, it is usually short lived
- The more intense the punishment, the more complete the suppression of behavior
The Consistency of Punishment
- Punishment must be consistent to suppress behavior
- Punishment should be administered with each and every occurrence of the unwanted behavior
- Very difficult to do this in real life
Delay of Punishment
- Punishment must be immediate to suppress behavior
* Immediate administration of punishment is often difficult or impossible in real life
