Exam #2 Study Guide Flashcards
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic flagella are long projections used in
motility
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic flagella are __ in number
few
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic flagella consist of _______ composed of the protein ______
microtubules, tubulin
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic flagella differ from each other in
structure
Eukaryotic flagella have a __+__ array of microtubules
9+2
in eukaryotes flagella what does 9+2 mean
microtubules are organized as 9 pairs in a ring plus 2 microtubules in the center
how do Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic flagella differ in movement
prokaryotic flagella rotate while eukaryotic flagella produce a wave like movement
glycolysis is the first of 3 principle phases in
carbohydrate catabolism
during glycolysis ______ is oxidized to ______ ____ which can then either enter the ______ ___ or __________
glucose, pyruvic acid, Krebs cycle, fermentation
Krebs cycle is cellular
respiration
fermentation is ______ respiration
anaerobic
in glycolysis glucose enters the cell and is phosphorylated, how much energy does this expire
1 ATP
end products of glycolysis
2 pyruvic acid, 2 ATP, 2 NADH
what are the structural units of nucleic acids
nucleotides are the structural units of nucleic acids
what are nucleotides made of
3 parts
- a pentose sugar
- phosphate group
- nitrogen containing base
DNA is ______ stranded
double
RNA is ________ stranded
single
DNA has the pentose
deoxyribose
RNA has the pentose
ribose
bases in DNA
Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine
bases in RNA
Adenine, Uracil, Cytosine, Guanine
DNA backbone structure consists of
alternating deoxyribose sugar and phosphate groups
DNA rungs of the ladder are
nitrogen containing bases
DNA contains all of the ________ ______ for the organism
genetic instructions
RNA plays important roles in
protein synthesis
3 types of RNA
rRNA, mRNA, tRNA
in the general structure of an amino acid there is an _____ group, ______ group and a ___ group attached to the alpha carbon
amino, carboxyl, R
fimbriae are hair like appendages that allow for
attachment to each other and to surfaces
fimbrae are involved with forming
biofilms
fimbrae can also attach to
epithelial surfaces in the body
fimbrae on the bacterium ___________ help it colonize mucous membranes and once colonization occurs the bacteria can cause diease
N. Gonnorhoeae
fimbrae on the bacterium __________ allows it to adhere to the lining of the small intestine
E. coli 0157
the surface of the rough ER has
ribosomes
the smooth ER has no
ribosomes on the surface
the rough ER synthesizes
protiens
the smooth ER synthesizes
cell membranes, fats and hormones
passive transport processes do not require expenditure of energy by the cell because substances cross the membrane from an area of _____ concentration to an area of ____ concentration
high, low
simple diffusion: the movement of molecules or ions from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. this process continues until _______ is reached.
equilibrium
facilitated diffusion: ________ membrane proteins facilitate the movement of ions or large molecules across the plasma membrane. This process may involve a _________ transporter or a _______ transporter
integral, nonspecific, specific
osmosis: net movement of _____ molecules across a selectively permeable membrane from an area of high to low concentration. Water molecules may pass through the membrane by _____ _______ or by the use of integral membrane proteins called _______
water, simple diffusion, aquaporins
fermentation: releases energy from other ______ moleules, does not require ________ (but can occur in its presence) does not require the use of the _____ cycle or an electron transport chain, and uses an organic moleules synthesized in the cell as the ________ _____ _______
organic, oxygen, Krebs, final electron acceptor
fermentation produces small or large amounts of ATP
small
2 important types of fermentation
lactic acid and alcohol fermentation
primary protein structure is _______ determined amino acid sequence
genetically
secondary protein structure have 2 shapes
helices and pleated sheets
tertiary protein structure the helices and pleated sheets fold to form a
3D shape
quaternary protein structure consists of
more than one polypeptide
what amino acid stereoisomer occurs most often in nature
L stereoisomer
why is ATP so significant to cells
ATP is able to store chemical energy, and release unuseable energy for use by the cell
protein function as
_____ that speed up chemical reactions
_______ proteins that move chemicals across membranes
______ used in motility
_______ toxins
and ____ structures
enzymes, transporter, flagella, bacterial, cell
protiens are made of
amino acids
amino acids consist of 3 groups
carboxyl group, amino group and side group
side group is known as
R group
the amino group is made up of what atoms
NH2
amino acid group looks like
N with 2 H’s branching
carboxyl group is made up of what atoms
COOH
carboxyl group looks like
C with an OH branching and another H branching
the side group is the _______ feature
distinguishing
side group affects the
total structure of the amnio acid
peptide bonds between amino acids are formed by
dehydration synthesis
for every peptide bond formed one _____ is released
H2O
primary structure is a
polypeptide chain
bonds in primary structure
peptide bonds
secondary structure occurs when the amino acid chain
folds and coils
secondary structure forms
helix or pleated sheets
bonds in secondary structure
peptide and hydrogen
tertiary structure occurs when helix and sheets fold
irregularly
in tertiary structure the folding is not
repetitive or predicitable
bonds in tertiary and quaternary structure
peptide, hydrogen, ionic and disulfide bridges
quaternary structure consists of
2 or more polypeptides and functions as a single unit
conjugated proteins consist of amino acids and
other organic moleules
conjugated proteins are named after
non amino acid group
glycoproteins
sugar
nucleoprotiens
nucleic acids
lipoprotein
lipds
nucleic acids consist of
nucelotides
nucleic acids name is based off of
nitrogen containing base
nucelotides are made up of
five carbon (pentose) sugar
phosphate group
nitrogen containing base (purine/pyrimidine)
purine _____ ring
double
purine example
adenine and guanine
pyrimidine _____ ring
single
pyrimidine example
thymine, cytosine and uracil
nucleosides consist of
pentose
nitrogen containing base
DNA vs RNA nucleic acid
deoxyribonucleic acid, ribonucleic acid
DNA vs RNA ribose
deoxyribose, ribose
DNA vs RNA shape
double helix, single stranded
DNA vs RNA what bonds with adenine
thymine, uracil
DNA vs RNA function
order of nitrogen bases form genetic instructions, participate in protein synthesis
why is ATP important
ATP is able to store chemical energy and release unusable energy to be used by the cell
structure of ATP
ribose, adenine, and 3 phosphate groups
when ATP forms into ADP one of 3 phosphate groups is released via
hydrolysis
ATP is generated by
phosphorylation
prokaryotes vs eukaryotes chromosome
one circular chromosome not in membrane, paired chromosome in nuclear membrane
prokaryotes vs eukaryotes histones and organelles
no, yes
prokaryotes vs eukaryotes cell wall
peptidoglycan (bacteria) and pseudomurein (archaea), polysaccharide if present
prokaryotes vs eukaryotes division
binary fission, mitosis
most bacteria are
monomorphic (single shape)
some bacteria are
pleomorphic (many shapes)
glycoclyx is found
external
glycoclyx is made of
polysaccharide
glycoclyx makes up
capsule/slime layer
capsule vs slime layer
neatly organized and firmly attached, unorganized and loosely attached
glycoclyx contributes to
virulence
flagella have 3 parts
filament, hook and basal body
filament
outermost region, contains the protein
hook
attaches to filament
basal body
consists of rods and pairs of rings, anchors flagella to cell membrane and wall
monotrichous and polar
flagella at one end of cell
lophotrichous and polar
tuft of flagella at one end
amphitrichous and polar
one flagella at both ends of cell
peritrichous
flagella all throughout the cell
flagella run and
tumble
archaella are made of
glycoprotein called archallins
achealla rotate like
flagella
archealla use ATP and lack
cytoplasmic core
axial filaments are also called
endoflagella
axial filaments are found in
spirochetes
axial filaments are anchored to
one end of the cell
axial filament structure is similar to
flagella
rotation of axial filaments causes cell to move like a
corkscrew
fimbrae are found in many gram
neg cells
fimbrae differ from flagella how?
shorter, straighter and thinner than flagella
fimbrae are hairlike appendages that allow for
attachment
fimbrae are distributed how?
polar/evenly distributed
fimbrae are involved with
biofilms
fimbrae help adhere to
epithelial
pili are longer than
fimbrae
how many pili per cell
1 to 2
pili are involved with
motility
pili 2 types of movement
gliding and twitching
gliding pili movement
smooth movement
twitching pili movement
makes contact with surface, short and jerk movement
conjuction pili
involved with DNA transfer
cell walls are responsible for
cell shape
cell walls protects from
adverse changes in the environment
cell walls prevent ______ lysis
osmotic
cell walls contribute to
pathogenicity
cell walls can be made of
peptidoglycan
cell walls peptidoglycan is a polymer of repeating __________ in rows, the 2 types are ____ and _____ and these are linked by _________
disaccharide, NAM, NAG, polypeptides
gram pos vs neg peptidoglycan
thick, thin
gram pos have _____ acids
teichoic
gram neg have an outer
membrane
gram neg have a _______ space
periplasmic
gram pos teichoic acid 2 types
lipoteichoic acid and wall teichoic acid
lipoteichoic acid links cell wall to
plasma membrane
wall teichoic acid links
peptidoglycan
gram neg contains the periplasm which is
the region between the outer membrane and plasma membrane
the periplasm contains
peptidoglycan, and a high concentration of degradative enzymes and transport protiens
gram neg outer membrane is made of
lipopolysachharides, lipoproteins, phospholipids, porins
two parts of the lipopolysaccharides in the gram neg outer membrane
O poly saccharides and the Lipid A
o polysaccharide functions
as a antigen
lipid a is a endo or exotoxin
endotoxin
lipid a is embedded where in the membrane
top layer
when lipid A is released it can cause
severe symptoms
porins are
channels through membrane
functions of gram neg outermembrane
protect from phagocytes, barrier against antibiotics and lysosomes
gram pos vs neg number of rings in basal body of flagella
2, 4
gram pos vs neg produce what toxins
exotoxins, exotoxins and endotoxins
gram pos vs neg susceptibility to penicllin
high, low
gram pos cell wall is disrupted by
lysosome
acid fast cell wall contains a waxy lipid called
mycolic acid
in acid fast cell wall the mycolic acid is bound to
peptidoglycan
2 species that are acid fast
mycobacterium and nocardia
mycoplasms lack
cell walls
protoplasts are wall less gram
pos
spheroplasts are wall less gram
neg
protoplasts are spheroplasts are susceptible to
osmotic lysis
L forms are wall less cells that
swell into irregular shapes
archaea may or may not have
cell walls
archaea cell walls are made of
pseudomurien
archaea cell walls lack
peptidoglycan
plasma membrane is the
phospholipid bilayer
the plasma membrane phospholipid bilayer encloses the
cytoplasm
plasma membrane has ________ proteins on membrane surface
peripheral
plasma membrane has _______/________ protein that penetrate the membrane
integral/transmembrane
structure of the plasma membrane is the
fluid mosaic model
function of the plasma membrane
selective permeability
selective permeability allow passage
for some moleules but not others
plasma membrane contains enzymes for
ATP production
some plasma membrane have photosynthetic pigments on foldings called
chromatophores
damage of plasma membrane can cause
leakage of contents
passive process
substances move from high concentration to low, no energy used
types of passive processes
simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis
simple diffusion is the movement of a ________ from an area of high concentration to low, this will continue until ________ is met
solute, equilibrium
facilitated diffusion the solute combines with a ________ protein, this transports ____ and ________ _______
transport, ions, larger molecules
osmosis is the movement of water across a _______ ________ membrane from an area of high water to area of lower water concetration
selective permeable
osmosis can diffuses across the membrane in 2 ways
through lipid bilayer, or through aquaporins
3 solutions that affect osmosis
isotonic, hypotonic, hypertonic
isotonic solution
solution concentrate equals inside and outside the cell, water is at equilibrium
isotonic solution effect cells
they don’t, cells stay the same
hypotonic solution
solute concentration is lower outside than inside cell
hypotonic solution effect on cells
water moves into cell causing burst/lysis
hypertonic solution
solute concentration is higher outside than inside cell
hypertonic solution effects on cells
water moves out of cell causing cell to shrink/plasmolysis
active processes
substances move from low concentration to high concentration, energy is used
active transport requires a _____ and ____, goes against gradient
protein, ATP
3 types of active tranport
uniport, antiport, symport
uniport
only transfer one type of molecule
antiport
transfer two types of molecules but in opposite directions
symport
transfer two types of molecules at the same time but is couples with a uniport channel
group translocation requires a _______ ____ and ____________ ___ (PEP); substance is ______ as it crosses the membrane
transporter protein, phosphoenolpyrivic acid, altered
cytoplasm is the substance
inside the plasma membrane
cytoplasm is what percent water
80
cytoskeleton is a series of
rods and fibers in cytoplasm
nuceliod 2 types
bacterial chromosomes, plasmids
bacterial chromosome
circular thread of DNA that contains cells genetic information
plasmids
extrachromosomal genetic elements, carry noncrucial genes
ribosomes are the site of
protein synthesis
ribosomes are made of protein and
rRNA
70s ribosomes are made up of
30S and 50S
70S ribosomes are found in
chloroplasts and mitochondria
80S proteins are made up of
60S and 40S
80S proteins can be found in 2 different locations
membrane bound on the rough ER or free in the cytoplasm
nucleus is a double or single membrane
double
nucleus contains the cells
DNA
in the nucleus the DNA is complexed with _____ ____ to form ________
histone proteins, chromatin
during mitosis and meiosis the chromatin condenses into
chromosomes
rough er vs smooth er ribosomes
studded with ribosomes, no ribosomes
rough er vs smooth er synthesis of what
protein, cell membranes, fats and hormones
golgi complex is a ______ organelle
transport
Golgi complex modifies ______ from the ER
proteins
Golgi complex transports modified proteins via _______ _______ to plasma membrane
secretory vesicles
lysosomes is a vesicle formed in the
Golgi complex
lysosomes contain
dogestive enzymes
vacuoles are cavities in the cell formed by
Golgi complex
vacuoles bring _____ into the cell
food
vacuoles provide ____ and ______
shape and storage
mitochondria have single or double membrane
double
two layer of mitochondria membrane
inner and outer
mitochondria contain inner folds called ______ and ______
cristae, fluid
mitochondria is involved with
cellular respiration
chloroplasts are locations of
photosynthesis
chloroplasts contain flattened membranes called _______ that contain chlorophyll
thylakoids
thylakoids exist in
stacks
one stack of thylakoids is called
granum
multiple stakes of thylakoids is called
granuma
peroxisomes oxidize ______ ___, destroy ___
fatty acids, H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide)
centrosomes are networks of protein fibers and
centroles
centrosomes form the _____ _____; which is critical in cell divison
mitotic spindle
centrosomes are sites of microtubule formation in _______ cells
nondividing
endospores are produced when
nutrients are depeleted
endospores are resistant to
heat, chemicals, radiation and dessication
endospores are produced by
bacillus and clostridium
sporulation
endospore formation
germenation
spores return to vegitative state
flagella are
long projections and few in number
cilia are
projections, numerous
flagella and cilia are projections for
locomotion or moving substances along cell surface
flagella and cilia both consist of
microtubules
microtubules are made of the protein
tubulin
cell wall vs glycocalyx where are they found
plants, algae, fungi; animal cells
cell wall vs glycocalyx carbohydrates?
made of carbs, carbs bonded to proteins and lipids in plasma membrane
eukaryotic vs prokaryotic structure similarities
phospholipid bilayer
integral and peripheral proteins
eukaryotic vs prokaryotic differences of structure
(only eukaryotic)
sterols
carbohydrates
sterols in eukaryotic cells are
complex lipids
carbs in eukaryotic cells are
used for attachment and cell to cell recognition
eukaryotic vs prokaryotic similarities of function
selective permeability, simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis and active transport
eukaryotic vs prokaryotic differences of function
(only eukaryotic)
endocytosis
endocytosis 3 types
phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor mediated endocytosis
phagocytosis
psudeopods extend and engulf particles
pinocytosis
membrane folds inward, bringing in fluid and dissolved substances
receptor mediated endocytosis
substances bind to receptors in the membrane and it folds inward
some viruses enter the cell in which type if endocytosis
receptor mediated endocytosis
metachromatic granules
phosphate reserves
polysaccharide granules
energy reserves
lipid inclusions
energy reserves
sulfur granules
energy reserves
carboxysomes
contain enzyme ribulose for CO2 fixation during photosynthesis
gas vacuoles
protein covered cylinders that maintain buoyancy in aquatic prokaryotes
magnetosomes
iron oxide inclusions formed by several gram neg bacteria, destroys H2O2
life arose as simple organisms
3.5-4 billion years ago
first eukaryotes evolved
2.5 billion years ago
endosymbiosis
one organism living within another
ancestral eukaryote was able to develop a _______ nucleus when the plasma membrane folded around a ______, cell called __________
rudimentary, chromosome, nuceloplasm
endosymbiotic theory
larger bacterial cells engulfed smaller bacterial cells which developed the first eukaryotes
ingested photosynthetic cells became
chloroplasts
injected aerobic bacteria became
mitochondria
when could chloroplasts and mitochondria once have been bacteria
resemble bacteria in size and shape, contain circular DNA, reproduce indepenedently from cells
metabolism
buildup and breakdown of nutrients in a cell
provide energy
create substances needed to sustain life
2 main types of metabolism
catabolic and anabolic
catabolic
break down macromolecules into simple component parts
release energy
provides energy and building blocks for anabolism
exergonic
anabolic
build up macromolecules by combining simpler moleules
uses energy
endergonic
catabolic reactions provide the energy needed for
anabolic pathways
metabolic pathways are sequences of
enzymatically catalyzed chemical reactions in cell
metabolic pathways are determined by
enzymes
enzymes are biologic
catalysts
enzymes speed up
chemical reactions
reaction rate can be increased by
enzymes, increase temp, increase pressure, increase concentration
enzymes act on specific
substrate
enzymes lower the
activation energy for a chemical reation
normal enzyme substrate interaction
substrate contacts the enzymes active site to form an enzyme substrate complex
substrate Is transformed and rearranged into products which are released from the enzyme
enzyme is unchanged and can react with other substances
enzymes have specificity for
particular substrates
turn over number
number of substrate turned to products by one enzyme per SECOND
enzyme has 2 components
apopenzyme, cofactor/coenzyme
apopenzyme
protein portion
cofactor
non protein component
coenzyme
if the cofactor is organic
the apopenzyme and cofactor/coenzyme form
holoenzyme
coenzyme assists enzymes by being a
electron carrier
NAD+ is primarily involved with
catabolic reactions
NADP+ is primarily involved with
anabolic reactions
both NAD and NADP contain B vitamin ______ and function as _________ ____
niacin, electron carriers
flavin adenine dinucleotide vitamin b ________ and _______ ____
riboflavin, electron carrier
coenzyme A (CoA) vitamin B _________ ___ and functions in
panthetic acid, synthesis and break down of fat (Krebs cycle)
oxidoreductase
oxidation reduction enzymes
enzymes end in
-ase
transferase
transfer functional group
hydrolase
hydrolysis
lyase
removal of atoms with out hydrolysis
isomerase
rearrganment of atoms
ligase
joining of molecules, uses ATP
factors influencing enzymes
temperature, pH, substrate concentration, inhibitors
increase in temp _____ in chemical reactions
increase
high temp and extreme pH
denatures enzymes
increase in concentration causes enzyme to work at
max rate
inhibitors can bind 2 ways
reversibly or irreversibly
inhibitors can bind because
the chemical make up is similar to substrate
inhibitors do or do not go through chemical reactions
DO NOT
2 types of inhibitors
competitive or noncompetitive
competitive enzymes how do they work?
fill the active site of an enzyme and compete with substrate
noncompetitive enzymes how do they work?
interact with allosteric part of enzyme, process called allosteric inhibition, indirectly changes shape of active site
feedback inhibition
end product of a reaction allosterically (noncompetitive) inhibits enzymes earlier in pathway
ribozymes RNA that functions as ________ by binding to substrates and acting upon them
catalysts
ribozymes are or are not used up in reaction
not used up
ribozymes are used in cells to splice and cut up
RNA
ribozymes are involved in
protein synthesis in ribosomes
oxidation reactions
loss of electrons
reductions reactions
gain of electrons
redox reactions
oxidation reaction paired with reduction reaction
phosphorylation 3 types
substrate level phosphorylation, oxidative phosphorylation, photophosprylation
substrate level phosphorylation
ATP is generated when high energy phosphate (PO4-) group is added to ADP
name of substrate level phosphorylation when process is out of mitochondria
glycolosis
name of substrate level phosphorylation when process is inside of mitochondria
Krebs Cycle
oxidative phosphorylation
electrons are transferred from one electron carrier to another along an electron transport chain (system) on a membrane that releases energy to generate ATP
photophosprylation
occurs only in photosynthetic cells
light energy is converted to chemical energy in the form of ATP during the transfer of electrons (oxidation) from chlorophyll as they pass through a system of carrier molecules
carbohydrate catabolism
break down of carbohydrates to release energy typically occurs in three principle stage
3 principle stages of carbohydrates catabolism
glycolysis, Krebs cycle, electron transport chain
glycolysis glucose is made and
broken down constantly in cells
2 main phases in glycolosis
preparatory stage, energy conservation stage
preparatory stage
uses 2 moleules of ATP to phosphorylate glucose making it easier to break apart into two 3 carbon molceules
energy conservation stage/glycolosis products
4 ATP (only 2 NET ATP) and 2NADH 2 pyretic acid moleules
preparatory stage is divided into 2 more stages
energy investment stage, lysis stage
step 1 of glycolosis
phosphate group is transferred from ATP to glucose
step 2 of glycolosis
atoms of glucose 6 phosphate are rearranged to form fructose 6 phosphate
step 3 of glycolysis
further energy is invested in form of ATP, forming fructose 1, 6 biphosphate
energy investment stage summary
ATP us used to phosphorylate glucose
step 4 of glycolysis
fructose 1, 6 diphosphate is cleaved into two 3 carbon sugars, dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate
step 5 of glycolysis
very rapid reaction, dihydroxyacetone phosphate is converted to glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate
lysis stage summary
doubly phosphorylated glucose molecule is cleaved into 2 phosphorylated 3 carbon sugars
in glycolysis ATP is produced via ___________ ________ ______________ because the phosphate groups are transferred directly from the metabolic products to ADP
substrate level phosphorylation
glycolysis mainly uses
oxidation reactions
in glycolysis NADH is formed in step
6
in glycolysis ATP is formed in steps
7 and 9
additional pathways to glycolysis
pentose phospate pathway, Entner Doudoroff pathway
pentose phosphate pathway breaks down __ carbon pentose sugars and or glucose and produce ____
5, NADPH
pentose phosphate pathway operates simultaneously with
glycolysis
pentose phosphate pathway produces intermediates for synthesis of
nucelic acids and glucose
pentose phosphate pathway bacteria
bactilis subtils and e coli
enter doudoroff pathway produces
NADPH and ATP
enter doudoroff operates
independently
enter doudoroff occurs in gram
neg
enter doudoroff bacteria
pseudomonas, rhizobium and argobacterium
cellular respiration
oxidation of molecules liberates electrons to operate electron transport chain
aerobic respiration final electron acceptor comes from outside the cell and is inorganic
oxygen
reactions in the Krebs Cycle
oxidation reduction and decarboxylation
electron transfer chain occurs where in prokaryotes
plasma membrane
electron transfer chain occurs where in eukaroytes
inner mitochondrial membrane
electron transport chain is a series of carrier moleules that are
oxidizes and reduced as electrons are passed down the chain
electron transfer chain energy is released is used to produce ATP by
chemiosmosis
chemiosmosis electrons (from NADH) pass down the electron transport chain while protons are pumped across the ________ this establishes a _______ _____
membrane, proton gradient
in chemiosmosis once the protons in higher concentration on one side of the membrane they diffuse through the ATP synthase which
releases energy to synthesize ATP
in anaerobic respiration the final electron acceptor comes from outside the cell and is inorganic
molecule other than oxygen
anaerobic yields less or more energy than aerobic
less
fermentation is part of what respiration
anaerobic
fermentation occurs after glucose is oxidized into _____ ___ and it can also be converted to an _____ product in fermentation
pyruvic acid, organic
fermentation does not require
oxygen
fermentation releases energy from
sugars/organic moleules
in fermentation it uses a organic molecule synthesized in the cell as the
final electron acceptor
2 types of fermentation
lactic and alcohol
lactic acid fermentation produces
lactic acid
lactic acid fermentation glucose is oxidized to pyruivc acid which is then reduced by
NADH
2 types of lactic acid fermentation
homolactic and heterolactic
homolactic
produces only lactic acid
heterolactic
produces lactic acid and other compounds
alcohol fermentation produces
ethanol and CO2
alcohol fermentation glucose is oxidized to pyruvic acid and is converted to acetaldehyde and ___; ____ reduces acetaldehyde to _______
CO2, NADH, ethanol
alcohol fermentation is carried out by
bacteria and yeasts
aerobic respiration has a total of __ ATP for 1 glucose
38
in aerobic respiration most ATP is produced by _________ ______ during ETC called ________ ______________
chemiosmotic mechanism, oxidative phosphorylation
photosynthesis uses water and CO2 to produce
glucose
the thylakoid membranes contain all of the components that participate in
light harvesting reactions
chlorophyll molecules that capture the
energy of light
light energy captured by chlorophyll is used to produce a
proton gradient during light dependent reactions and this proton gradient is used to produce ATP
carbon fixation
synthesis of sugars by using carbon atoms from CO2 gas
what types use water as hydrogen donor, which release O2
plants, algae, cynaobacteria
what types use H2S as hydrogen donor, producing sulfur granules
purple and green sulfur bacteria
2 stages of photosynthesis
light dependent and light indepenent
light dependent
light energy is used to convert ADP to ATP, electron carrier NADP+ is reduced to NADPH
3 pathways for light dependent
photophosphorylation, cyclic photophosphorylation, noncyclic photophosphorylation
photophosphorylation, light energy is absorbed by __________ moleules in the photosyntheic cell, exciting some of the molecules ________, excited electrons jump from chlorophyll to the first series of _______ ______, as electrons are passed along the series of carriers, _______ are pumped across the membrane and ADP is converted to ATP by __________
chlorophyll, electrons, carrier molecules, protons, chemiosmosis
chlorophyll in photosystem 1 is sensitive to wavelengths of light of
700nm
cyclic photophosphorylation, electrons released in photosystem 1 eventually returns to
chlorophyll
electrons in photosystem 1 stay in
photosystem
noncyclic photophosphorylation, used in ______ organisms, both __________ are required, electrons released from the chlorophyll in photosystem 1 and 2 do not return to ________ but become incorporated into _______, electrons lost from chlorophyll are replaced by electrons from _____, products are: ____, __, ___
oxygenic, photosystems, chlorophyll, NADPH, H2O, ATP, O2, NADPH
light independent is also known as
Calvin benson
light independent do not require
light directly
in light independent CO2 is ______, used to synthesize sugars
fixed
phototrophs
use light energy to drive ATP production
chemotrophs
depend on oxidation reduction reactions of inorganic/organaic compounds for energy
autotrophs
self feeders, use CO2
autotrophs are referred to as
lithographs (rock eating)
heterotrophs
feeders on others, require organic carbon source
heterotrophs are referred to as
organotrophs
photoautotrophs
use energy obtained initially from light in the Calvin benson cycle to fix CO2 to sugar
photoautotrophs can be either _____ which it produces oxygen or ________ does not produce oxygen
oxygenic, anoxygenic
photoheterotrophs
use organic compounds as a source of carbon, anoxygenic
chemoautotrophs
obtain energy from inorganic compounds, use CO2 as carbon source, energy is used in Calvin benson cycel to fix CO2
chemoheterotrophs
obtain energy and carbon from organic chemicals, specifically uses the electrons from hydrogen atoms found in organic compiunds as their energy source, mediacally and economically important
anabolism
biosynthesis of biological moleules, requires energy
where do amino acids required for protein synthesis come from
organisms with the necessary enzymes can synthesis all amnio acids directly or indirectly from intermediates of carbohydrafe metabolism, other microbes require that the environment provdide some preformed amino acids
amphibolic pathways
metabolic pathways that function in both anabolism and catabolism, bridge between catbaolic and anabolic
example of amphibolic pathway
Krebs cycle
for every 2 moleules of CoA that enter the cycle ___ molecules of CO2 are liberated by __________, _ molecules of NADH and _ moleules of FADH2 are produced by __________ _____ reactions, and __ ATP are generated by ________ _____ _________
4, decarboxylation, 6, 2, oxidation reduction, 2, substrate level phosphorylation
the reduced coenzymes NADH and FADH2 are the most important products of the Krebs cycle because
they contain most of the energy that was originally stored in glucose
flavoprotein
capable of preforming alternating oxidation and reductions
cytochromes
proteins with iron containing group, capable of existing alternately as reducing for and oxidized form
ubiquinones
small non protein carriers
flavoprotein, cytochromes, ubiquinones are involved with
electron transport chain
important feature of the electron transport chain is the presence of some carriers that accept and release _______ and ______ and others carriers that transfer only __________
protons and electrons, electrons
the buildup of protons provides energy that chemiosmotic mechanism uses to generated
ATP
ATP synthesis uses the electron transport chain called ________ and it involves ________ _____
chemiosmosis, oxidative phosphorylation
