Essay topic 1: Henry VIII foreign policy Flashcards
Aims 1509-29
1) Glory and honour (link with territory/ control of France)
2) Pacify Scotland (link with “Auld Alliance”)
3) Wolsey’s aim of central European peacemaker
4) Increase England’s international status/ power (link with alliances
Glory and honour aims essay 1509-29 summary
1)Wanted to be like his idol Henry V and therefore main focus was on war and pursuing French territorial claims
Examples: 1- Renewal of 1510 Treaty of Etaples could be viewed as highlighting Henry’s desire to pursue peace in Europe, however important to note that this was truly the work of his father’s old councillors, as is exacerbated by the fact that it was signed by Richard Fox (Bishop of Winchester), Thomas Ruthall, Bishop of Durham, and Thomas Howard, Earl of Surrey.
Important to note their aims and policies do not reflect those of the young warrior king and he had already aimed to differentiate himself from his father’s old councillors via execution of Empson and Dudley in 1510.
Furthermore, fact that in 1511 Henry sent Christopher Bainbridge, archbishop of York to Rome as a means of attaining papal support in campaign vs France does much to show Henry’s true intentions as king- desire for war, glory and honour.
2) Willing to risk financial insecurity and drain the treasury of father’s solvent crown
Examples: 1st French War= £892,000
2nd French War= £400,000
Despite only having an annual income of around £110,000
In addition to this can state that tax, despite fact that revolt never reached full scale, Henry was willing to put himself at risk of a similar revolt to the 1489 Yorkshire Rebellion as a means of securing extra-ordinary finance to fund aggressive foreign policy.
Mention Amicable Grant of 1525 as a precise example of desire to raise extra ordinary finance and risk rebellion and unrest as a means of waging war vs France in 1520s after failed 2nd FW left him desperate for h+g.
Fact willing to spend £2 million on 3rd FW shows willingness to leave a toxic legacy of inflation (due to coin debasement), debt (due to borrowing money from Antwerp Market) and unpopularity (due to heavy taxation) as a means of achieving g and h through war with France.
3) Aimed to achieve glory through battles
Examples:
1- Battle of Spurs (16 Aug 1513) saw capture of Thérrouanne and Tournai. Although considered an ‘ungracious dog hole’ and Maximillian used Henry for own gain and destroyed Tournai’s defensive therefore cost £40,000 to re-build so more than sold back to France for on 4 Oct 1518, Henry still saw its capture as a glorious success as was Eng’s 1st victory in France for around 75 years.
2- Battle of Flodden (9 Sept 1513). 26,000 Eng resounding victory vs 30-40,000 Scots.
Glory as James IV died. However Henry failed to capitalise on victory as over occupied with France. Taxation point can link to this battle.
Despite Henry not being present does show desire to bestow glory as used Surrey and COA’s success as a major propaganda victory so shows desire to prove himself as warrior king.
4) Field of Cloth of Gold (June 1520)
Cost years revenue to show wealth and power.
Considered by Henry as glorious, despite having ego bruised by being beat by Francis I in a wrestling match.
Shows ability to manipulate alliance negotiations in order to earn glory and show wealth.
5) Mid-1540s paintings point
Set of 4 painting, still withheld in Royal archives/ collection.
2= Battle of Spurs and victory in France
2= Field of Cloth of Gold.
highlights the importance of g and h as even at end of reign such aims and events hold just as much importance and pride to Henry as they had done in 1510s and 1520s. Thus highlights importance of g+h to Henry.
Aims 1540-47
Very similar to those of 1509-29
1) Glory and honour
2) Pacification of Scotland
3) Conquest of France
4) Increases European power and status
Glory and honour aims 1529-40
1)English foreign policy became far less agressive and a lot more defensive during this period due to BWR.
2) More defensive due to lack of funds.
Crown was bankrupt by 1525 therefore can’t afford agressive fp.
Failed Amicable Grant tax of 1525.
Glory and honour aims 1540-47
1) Renewed interest in G+H after threat of Cath Crusade of 1538-39 begins to fade.
2) Additional funding made available, shows Henry’s desire for war as made £1.3 million from dissolution of monasteries and instead of using new crown land (old church land) as a way of increasing income from rents, thus establishing a stable and fruitful long-term income source, he instead favoured the quick sale of monastic land as a way to quickly gain funds for war, hence demonstrating importance of war to Henry as he placed this above financial security for himself, as well as the future of the Tudor Dynasty
This is perfectly highlighted by fall of income of rents to £48,000 per annum by 1547 (less than 1/2 of annual income of monasteries). Desire to return to path of war asap.
Also used gaining of £400,000 between Aug 1535-Oct 1547 from First Fruits and Tenths as a means of financing 3rd French campaign.
3) Fact willing to spend £2 million on 3rd FW shows willingness to leave a toxic legacy of inflation (due to cion debasement), debt (due to borrowing money from Antwerp Market) and unpopularity (due to heavy taxation) as a means of achieving g and h through war with France.
Raised forced loans of over £110,000 in 1542 and 1545. Part of the total £650,000 extraordinary finance he recieved in this time to fund war.
Willing to cause poverty and ruin the currency if meant he would achieve glory. Put his own desire for h+g before the security and welfare of his people.
Woukd have had even more widespread unrest towards him had it not have been for the good harvests of 1538 and 1547
4) Capturing of Boulogne on 18th September 1544 via seige of Boulogne emphasises desire for this aim as used Feb 1543 treaty with Charles and sending of an army of 40,000 to enable himslef to win victory via capturing of French territory. May not be considered by most as a victory due to little income or land recieved but was a victory for Henry.
5) Importance of glory and honour to Henry is exacerbated by a collection of 4 paintings created in the mid-1540s that still exist in the Royal Collection.
2 paitings show victory at Spurs, other 2 show Field of Cloth of Gold.
This celebrates king’s prominent participation on the international stage and demonstrate that value of g and h was as great to Henry in 1540s as it was in the 1510s and 1520s.
(can use this point in paintings in 1509-29 as well)
6) Increased navy for war
7 ships under Henry VII goes to around 40 under Henry VIII. Desire for honour and prestige and to involve himself in conflict.
Central Peacemaker in Europe aim 1514-29 (Wolsey’s aim)
1) Wolsey knew peace was cheaper than war and English crown didn’t have sufficient funds by 1515 to continue the aggressive policy of the first 5 years of Henry’s reign.
2) Must be noted that Wolsey was able to bestow honour upon his master in a differnet form to glory via placing the pair at the center of European diplomacy.
Examples:
1- 1518 Treaty of London
Wolsey’s ‘Greatest diplomatic triumph’
Hyjacked idea from Pope Leo X’s desire to for a defense league vs expanding power and threat of Ottoman Empire
Wolsey’s treaty was signed with France on 4 Oct 1518 and was signed later by Spain, the papacy, Italy and 20 other minor powers/nations.
Shows Wolsey’s desire to place himself and the king at center of European peace as each nation made a seperate agreement of peace with solely England, rarther than being one treaty signed by many nations, therefore Wolseyb placed them at forefront of international affairs.
Despite war between Francis and Charles by 1521 clear that Wolsey’s intentions were for peace, as gave honour to king (Gwyn argues his main aim was to serve king)
Gave England greater influence in Europe
2- During H-V conflict Wolsey aimed to be arbiter at Calais in Aug 1521 between Francis and Charles. Whilst failed to referee peace, was clear that he intended to end war and restore peace. Neverthless, this aim was expendable as by 14 Aug 1521 Wolsey had negotiated Treaty of Bruges with Charles V commiting Eng to war with France should the conflict continue.
Whilst can be argued Wolsey aimed to discourage and postpone involvement for war as much as possible, clear that Henry was becoming disillusioned with peace and his war based character may have played a role in Wolsey’s signing of Bruges.
LInk to how Scarsbrick argues Wolsey always wanted peace, however Henry was often unsure and had a far more flexible mindset, often swaying from idea of peace. Wolsey aims to delay war however emergence of 2nd FW shows willingness to abandon this aim as a way to satisfy King’s desire for g and h.
3- Peace of Cambrai of 1529
Signed by Wolsey with very little reference to Henry or his aims. Portrays Henry’s disillusionment with peace, whilst Wolsey maintained this desire.
Also shows England’s declining influence and is possible not restoring honour to Henry as had done initially therfore was abandoned in favour of honour through glory.
Fact Wolsey fell from grace in 1529 after this treaty and failure to achieve King’s GM shows difference between aims of Henry and Wolsey and Henry’s desire to move away from peace and diplomacy based policy.
3) Clearly not one of Henry’s principal aims as was abandoned completely after Wolsey’s demise in 1529. For Henry was a temporary and pragmatic approach to a lack of funds and resources. Can also be used to show importance of honour as Henry happy to pursue it until 1521 as bestowed a level of honour upon him, however failure in 1521 and lack of significance in 1529 peace, alongside other factors, caused a change in heart for the king.
4) Failure to pursue peace examples:
1- 3 FW
2- BWR caused tension and threat of cruisade not peace. Led to religious divides and hostility.
Historiography of Wolsey’s aims
- Pollard (traditional) - Wolsey aimed to become Pope
- Peter Gwyn - very pro-Wolsey. More modern/revisionst view. Believe Wolsey’s main aims was to serve and satisfy king’s aims.
- Scarsbrick- wanted a humanistic peace
Pacification of Scotland aim 1509-29
1) Mention “Auld Alliance” context, links between two ans how when good relations with France relations with Scot tend to follow and same with hostile relations.
2) Battle of Flodden (9 Sept 1513)
-James IV and much of Scot army and aristocracy/nobility killed.
-Henry failed to capitalise on the death of James IV and fact that James V succeeded throne and was an infant with a regent. This left Scot vulnerable and should Henry had invaded it is evident that he could have been able to take over Scot and consequently pacify Scot in long-term, as well as establishing a pro-Eng giva nd removing the French faction and influnec from the nation. Failed to do so due to being overoccupied with France and obsessed with gaining territory. Consumed by his desire for g and h.
3) Treaty of More (30 Aug 1525)
-Treaty w/ France
-Shows aim of pacifying Scot as terms of treaty used to discourage “Auld Alliance” as prevented the return of Scot regent and heir presumptive Duke of Albany (was also a French noble) to Scot, thus removing a potential threat to Eng’s security and reducing power off Scot and collaboration between Scot and France.
This treat also shows some intent to repair relations withe France due to Charles V’s increasing power and influence as Eng recieve pension in return for Eng securing release of Francis 1 after Charles V took him prisoner during 1525 Battle of Pavia.
Finally, fact treaty gave up some of Eng’s territorial claims in France highlights importance fi reducung Scot power as Henry was obssessed with aiming to pursue French claim to throne and capturing land there.
4) Less focus on Scot in 1529-40 due to BWR, etc. However always a big threat due to being boarder neighbours and having traditional ties with France.
Pacification of Scotland aim 1540-47
1) Renewed interest in Scot after 1540.
2) Battle of Soloway Moss (1543)
-Eng raided and heavily defeated Scots. (3,000 Eng defeat 10,000 Scots) James V not present howver dies a few weeks later after hearing news of his countries heavy defeat.
-Number of Scot nobles captures as prisoners which does show a clear intention to pacify and remove Scot threat.
-Nevertheless, fails to capitalise on James V’s heir being 6 day old Mary. Just as in 1513, Henry was solely obsessed with France and glory. A full-scale invasion on Henry’s part would have been near impossible for the Scots to repel, however France remains main interest therefore looked primarily to diplomatic pressure as a means of securing his Scot objectives, whilst he reserved most of his forces and funds as he sought military glory in Frace.
3) Say how this disproves Pollard’s 1902 interpreatation of 1540s FP as he claimed Henry’s main purpose/goal was the conquest of Scotland.
4) It is clear that Henry’s long-term plan was the marriage of new Scot Queen Mary to his son Edward and in Juky 1543 the Treaty of Greenwich callled for peace between the 2 kingdoms and aimed to arrange the future marriage of the 2. This peace treaty confirmed Henry’s failure to capitalise on Soloway Moss, however despite treaty being deemed unacceptable by most Scots and never being ratified, does illustrate a keen desire on Henry’s behalf to establish relations between the two.
Must keep in mind this was ore than likely a tactic to weaken Farnce by removing Scot alliance, therefore would help in his hunt for g and h.
“Rough Wooing” policy
5) Further invasion in May 1544, led by Earl of Hertford. Caused burning of Edinburgh and much destruction of lowlands and strengthed anti-Eng sentiment in Scit, however showed desire to limit Scots from intervening in 1544 Eng invasion of France (3rd FW).
Make Eng a major power and increase status in Europe aim 1509-29
1) Eng not a major power in 1509 after succession.
Solvent and secure thrown.
2) Lack of resources throughot reign in comparison to the major powers highlights a failure to vastly increase Eng power or wealth or int importance to a point where could compete with likes of France or Spain (and HRE)
Examples:
1- Population size: Eng-2.75 million
France- 15 million
HRE- 23 million
2- Annual income: Eng- £110,000
France-£350,000
HRE-£560,000
3) Aimed to use alliances to increase say in European affairs at start of reign
Examples of alliances to try and increase influence:
1- Unlike farther, joined Holy League in 1510 with Spain,papacy, Italy, Swiss and Venitians.
Was a means of incrasing powerful alliances and inceasing status and respect of Eng by involving his nation in international affairs.
2- Treaty of London shows desire for freater influence in Europe as center of peace and has non-agression pacts with over 20 nations therefore more respect and conscience towards Eng.
3- 1521: aimed to use his position as the 3rd of the 3 major powers as a way to increase influence as negotiated with both sides. Met with Charles at Bruges and with Francis at Calais.
3) 1525 Charles V’s victory at Pavia and his 1527 Sacking of Rome showed his far greater power. Charles’ refusal to divide French territory gained or croen Henry as king of France after Henry suggested idea of joint invasion of northern France. This not only showed might of Chalres’s army but also highlights his greater power and influence as he clearly harboured little interest for Henry’s aims and felt little need to satisfy him. Demonstrates that Eng was not a threat to Spain and Henry was a disposable and insignificant ally in Charles’ eyes.
What was the nature of foreign policy in 20s 30s and 40s. How does this link to Henry’s approach and aims.
Greater tendency in 16th century to see foreign policy as relations between different rulers rarther than between different countries, so one should not think so much of England allying with France as of Henry allying with Francis. In this kind of context, the ambitions and prestige of the individual rulers are obviously of great importance
Make Eng a major power and increase status in Europe aim 1529-40
1) Less focus due to BWR prot settlement etc
2) Nevertheless, fact that Charles V and Francis 1 diverted resources and attentions at war gave Henry opportunity to use position as 3rd major power to his advantage as he had done previously by meeting both in 1921 as a means of securing 2 potential allies after confrontation emerged as a result of 1519 HRE elections.
3) Nevertheless, can’t be said that Henry was successful or that he aimed to involve himself in all foreign affairs as he avioded the Italian Wars and was left isolated in 1538 by the signing of the Truce of Nice and following 1539 Pact of Toledo by Spain and France, in which both nations agreed to severe ties with England.
Make England a major power and increase international status aim 1540-47
1) Still no where near as powerful or wealthy as France or Spain.
2) Henry had done well to improve security and might in overseas combat through his expansion of the navy from 7 ships under Henry VII to around 40 by 1547.
3) Henry was abandoned again by Charles V during his 3rd Ffrench campaign. This can be put down to a lack of cooperation on Heenry’s side, most likely due to his obession with pursuing glory and honour. He was left isolated in war vs France after Charles made a seperate peace with Francison same day Henry won Boulogne. Threat of continued war with France (reinforced by Scot) and fact that Scot posed great threat on Northern boarder emphasises Henry’s over-reliance on allies as a means of achieving power or fulfilling his aims.
Aim 1529-47 BWR
Context: Henry decided he wanted to annul marriage to COA in 1527 however the pair did not divorce until 1533 and Henry BWR in 1534
Used Leviticus 20:21 as a means to declare his marriage to COA viod as needed a male heir.
BWR caused great tension with Spain and HRE and Charles V was nepphew of COA.
1) Fact that all other aims take a back foot and are postponed from 1529-around 1540 highlights importance of GM and BWR. Talk about how other aims took a back foot. Is the only period of policy (under Cromwell) without a French campaing or war. Security and the prospect of familiar and secure alliances was sacrificed as a means of pursuing his desires.
2) Led to a desire to form Protestant allies as a means of ending isolation and having allies should a Catholic Cruisade occur vs Eng (looked very likely in 1538-39 so was a grave threat) Act of Supremacy (Nov 1534) declared Henry Supreme Head of Church which angered Pope and removed his authority in Eng.
Desire to make Protestant alliances showed a desire for security and to prvent threat, however also shows religious importance as willing to turn Catholic world against him in order to secure his dicorce/ great matter.
Examples: 1- aimed to ally with the schmalkaldic league until 1540 however religious differences made such an alliance impossible. Shows desire to obtain prot allies.
2- The Cleves marriage aimed to sough an alliance with Prot Germany as a means of ending isolation in Europe.
3) Wolsey’s fall from grace as a result of failure to achieve King’s GM, especially after Wolsey’s signing of Peace of Cambrai in 1529 made papal agreement to Henry’s divorce virtually impossible. Nevertheless, BWR was not only factor affecting this as Henry had grown tired of Wolsey’s failure to achieve other aims too like desire for honour and glory.
4) Link to desire to secure the succession. Clearly important to him throughout whole of reign as is exacerbated by intention of marriage alliances
Example:
1- Mary married Louis XII of France in 1514 but he died on 1 Jan 1515 therefore no benefit to succession as she re-married to Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk on the 15 May 1515, hence ruling out the chance of using her as a means of obtaining an alliance or security from another nation via a marriage alliance
5) Link to G+H and chance at France as knew after the 1533 Valor ecclesiasticus showed could double his wealth via act of dissolution of 1536. Could also use this to divert funds away from via ending of taxes to papacy such as 1st Fruits and Tenths, from which Henry gained £400,000 between Aug 1535-Oct 1547
Aim of securing the dynasty and succession (far more prominent after 1529)
1) Desire to secure the succession and improve security via alliances. Clearly important to him throughout whole of reign as is exacerbated by intention of marriage alliances
Example:
1- Mary married Louis XII of France in 1514 but he died on 1 Jan 1515 therefore no benefit to succession as she re-married to Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk on the 15 May 1515, hence ruling out the chance of using her as a means of obtaining an alliance or security from another nation via a marriage alliance
2) Believed marriage to COA was condemned by God and used Leviticus 20:21 to declare marriage void. Fact went to such lengths and passed Acts of Succession of 1534 and 1536 demonstates vitality of having a male heir to Henry. Links to fp as used foreign alliances and marriage alliances to try and have a male heir.
3) Treaty of Grenwich 1543 showed desire for marriage alliance with Scot as a means of pacifying Scot, reducing risk from “auld alliance”. Rough wooing.
Never ratified but shows desire to secure succession as Edward being born in 1537 not enough as by 1543 Henry’s health was declining. This coincides with this alliance and shows he knew Edward would still be an infant so wanted alliance as a means of reinforcing his claim and security.
4) (Threaded argument link) On other hand, must be said that, as I have previously mentioned, was willing to risk financial security of his kingdom as a means of pursuing war and g and h.
In addition to this, by breaking with Rome he caused grave risk of foreign invasion via his break with Rome as risk of Catholic Cruisade, therefore (at least in mid part of reign) can be stated that he was more interested in anullment than national security.
