Domain I: Principles of Dietetics: Food Science Flashcards
Fruits and vegetables are made up of ___-___% water, along with both digestible and indigestible carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals
75-93%
Fruits and vegetables have crispness, or ____, which is due to the osmotic pressure of water-filled vacuoles
Turgor
During ripening, fruits and vegetables undergo chemical changes due to ____ which cause starch to change to sugar
Enzymes
During the ripening process, protopectin is coverted to ____ (ripe fruit) and then to ____ ____ (overripe fruit)
Pectin; pectic acid
____ gas accelerates ripening of fruits during storage
Ethylene
Aging is delayed in apples stores in controlled atmosphere, or reduced _____
Oxygen
The green pigment in fruits and vegetables is ____
Chlorophyll
Chlorophyll is _____ in water
Insoluble
Chlorophyll changes to an ____ green color when exposed to acid
Olive
The olive green color of vegetables that are exposed to acid is due to _____
Pheophytin
Chlorophyll changes to a ____ green color when exposed to alkaline substances
Bright
Texture of vegetables exposed to alkaline substance:
Mushy (due to hemicellulose breakdown)
The yellow/orange pigments in fruits and vegetables are ____
Carotenoids
Of all the pigments, carotenoids are least effected by changes in ____
pH
Carotenoids are ____ in water
Insoluble
Carotenoids are minimally effected by ____ and ____ substances
Acid, alkaline
One type of carotenoid are ____, which are antioxidants and phytochemicals
Lycopenes
What are examples of flavonoid pigments?
Anthocyanins, anthoxanthins. flavones
The pigments that provides red, blue, and purple color to fruits and vegetables are _____
Anthocyanins
Anthocyanins are ____ in water
Soluble
Anthocyanins are greatly impacted by ____
pH
Anthocyanins turn ____ in acid
Red
Anthocyanins turn ____ in alkaline substances
Purple
The types of flavonoid that are colorless, white, or yellow are ____ and ____
Anthoxanthins, flavones
Anthoxanthins and flavones are ____ in water
Soluble
Anthoxanthins and flavones become _____ in acid due to the bleaching effect
Colorless
Anthoxanthins and flavones become ____ in alkaline substances or when cooked in an aluminum pan because flavones chelate aluminum
Yellow
Berries and mushrooms should be ____ just before serving
Washed
Fruits low in vitamin ____ darken/oxidize rapidly when cut due to enzymatic action
C
To prevent oxidation, you can…
-Dip in citrus juice
-Add sugar before freezing
-Heat to boiling
One dozen oranges will produce ____ cups of juice
4 (1 qt)
Cooking vegetables and fruits softens ____, as well as increases keeping quality and cooks starch
Cellulose
When sweetener is added to liquid of packing juice, the density of the syrup is expressed as a percentage by weight of _____
Sucrose
Percent weight of sucrose is measures with a ___ hydrometer
Brix
____ is a thin puree of fruit or vegetable, sugar, and water used as a sauce
Coulix
A ____ is a fruit cooked/stewed in syrup
Compote
Potatoes have ____ compounds that cause color changes in raw, peeled, or bruised potatoes
Phenolic
A green color under the skin of potatoes is due to chlorophyll that develops when the potato is exposed to light during storage; this may be accompanied by ____, a natural toxicant
Solanine
Starch changes to ____ during storage of fruits and vegetables which causes changes in taste, color, and texture
Sugar
Old potatoes taste ____, cook to a darker brown (Maillard reaction) and are softer in texture
Sweeter
Acidic vegetables that need more time to boil require more ____ and should be cooked without a lid
Water
____ cooking retains the color and flavor of vegetables (need to cut small)
Pressure
Frozen vegetables have a ____ cook time due to blanching and freezing that have made them more tender
Shorter
To minimize development of a strong odor when cooking cabbage, cook for a short time, keep lid off initially to let ____ escape, and cook in large amounts of water
Acid
____ acid is found in young vegetables and is used in a form of salt (MSG)
Glutamic
_____ gives an odor to onions and cabbage
Sulfer
____ cause an astringent feeling in the mouth (unripe bananas)
Tannins
USDA grades of fruits and vegetables are based on…
-Quality
-Firmness
-Color
-Maturity
-Freedom from defects
-Uniform size and shape
Grades for canned fruits and vegetables:
-Grade A/Fancy (desserts, salads)
-Grade B/Choice (processed)
-Grade C/Standard (puddings, pies)
Grades for fresh produce:
-Fancy
-Extra #1
-#1
-Combination
-#2
Muscle of meat products is composed on bundles of fibers called _____ which are held together by different types of connective tissue
Myofibrils
____ is a structural part of the tendon that surrounds muscle
Collagen
In heat, collagen is hydrolyzed to ____ and becomes tender
Gelatin
Elastin is another type of connective tissue; it is ____ to heat so it changes very litter with cooking
Resistant
Elastin is found in _____ and ____ and has a yellow color
Ligaments and cartilage
The ____ describes the amount of fat cover on a carcass
Finish
Meat, fish, poultry, and meat alternatives are usually between ___-___% protein
16-23
Meat contains carbohydrates in the form of ____ in the liver and ____ in the blood
Glycogen, glucose
What vitamins and minerals exist in meat?
-Thiamin
-Niacin
-Riboflavin
-Iron
-Copper
-Trace minerals
Pork is an especially good source of ____
Thiamin
____ content is high in fish canned with bones, oysters, and shrimp
Calcium
The main contributor to meat color is _____
Myoglobin
Myoglobin, when exposed to oxygen, changes to what colors?
Red, brown, green
When myoglobin turns green, it is due to further myoglobin _____
Breakdown
Aging meat increases ____ due to a change in muscle protein brought about my enzymes which increase the water-holding capacity of the muscle
Tenderness
Vacuum-packing meat in an oxygen-impermeable filmed, stored unfrozen at 0 degrees C (32 degrees F) is ____ ____ ___, which extends the storage life of meat
Anaerobic sous vide
____ _____ packaging prolongs shelf life by removing oxygen and replacing it with carbon dioxide and nitrogen
Modified atmospheric
Modified atmospheric packaging prevents deterioration by slowing _____
Respiration
____ is mandatory for meat products, while grading is voluntary
Inspection
The ____ ____ Act of 1967 assures consumers that that the animal was healthy at the time of slaughter and the meat is fit for human consumption (indicated with a purple stamp that says “USDA inspected and passed”)
Wholesome Meat
Grading indicates _____ of meat; the grade appears on a sheild
Quality
Meat is federally graded by the ____ ____ ____ of the USDA
Agricultural Marketing Service
Grades for meat (determined at slaughter):
-Prime (most marbling)
-Choice
-Select
-Standard (least marbling)
Grading of meat is based on…
-Maturity of animal
-Marbling of fat
-Color
-Texture
Meat ____ refers to a numbering system for ordering wholesale cuts (IMPS, NAMP)
Specifications
When roasting meat, cook at a temperature of ____ degrees as high temperatures increase shrinkage and toughen meat (low temperatures yields less waste)
325
Safe minimum internal temperature for pork, beef, veal, lamb, steaks, roast, and fish:
145 degrees
Safe minimum internal temperature for ground beef, ground veal, ground lamb, etc:
160 degrees
Safe minimum internal temperature for turkey, chicken, and duck:
165 degrees
Physical and chemical changes to meat as it cooks:
-Protein coagulates
-Collagen is hydrolyzed to gelatin and softens
-Surface browns due to breakdown of pigments
-Heat changes interior from red to pink to brown to grey
Color of meat changes during cooking because heat denatures ____, and then iron is oxidized
Globin
Cured meats are pink from nitrites, which inhibit _____
Botulism
For jerky, heat meat to ____ degrees before dehydration, and heat poultry to ____ before dehydration
160; 165
Use ____ heat methods (such as frying, broiling, roasting, or grilling) to cook tender cuts of meat near the backbone such as the loin or sirloin
Dry
A desirable property of fat used in frying is a high smoke point, typically above ____ degrees
400
Fats, in order from highest smoke point to lowest:
-Safflower (513)
-Soybean
-Canola
-Corn
-Palm
-Peanut
-Sunflower
-Sesame
-Olive (375)
-Lard (375)
-Shortening (365-370)
-Butter (350)
Monoglycerides (shortening) have ____ smoke points
Low
It is best not to fry ____ cuts of meats like bottom round
Tougher
____ involves the uptake of oxygen in an unsaturated fatty acid
Rancidity
The healthiest plant oils are all highly _____, meaning they are susceptible to rancidity
Unsaturated
Olive oil has more _____ fatty acids, which makes it less susceptible to rancidity than soybean oil which has more _____ fatty acids
Monounsaturated; polyunsaturated
Broiling is a form of ____ heat
Radiated
When meat is removed from the oven, “carry-over cooking” will occur for about ten minutes; internal temperature will rise ___-___ degrees F
15-25
For best results, allow roast to stand ____ minutes before carving
30
____ heat cooking methods are best suited for less tender cuts of meat with more connective tissue (bottom round, chuck, brisket)
Moist
____ is a moist heat cooking method that involves added flour to the meat, browning, a simmering in liquids in an over or range-top
Braising
____ is a moist cooking method that requires heating in water 170-185 degrees with the appearance of bubbles
Simmering
____ is a moist cooking method that requires heating over, not in, water
Steaming
____ is a moist cooking method that requires adding water or other liquids during cooking
Stewing
A proteolytic enzyme called ____ tenderizes meat (made from a blend of papaya and salt)
Papain
In soybeans, _____ is the limiting amino acid, meaning that it limits the rate of protein synthesis
Methionine
In soybean protein concentrate, there is over ____% protein; in soy protein isolates, there is over ____%
70; 90
Soybeans are used to make ____ ____ products; this can be mixed with ground meats to extend the number of servings while lowering costs, and also can add juiciness due to its water content
Textured protein
Forms of soy:
-Edamame (soybean pod)
-Tofu (coagulated soy protein)
-Miso (soy paste)
-Tempeh (aged soybean and grain)
-Natto (fermented soybean)
Since fish is more perishable than meat, store at a ____ temperature
Lower
Fresh fish with head attached should have bright ____ gills and bright, shiny skin (if gills are grey and dull, reject it)
Red
_____ toxicity is linked to inadequate refrigeration of tuna, mackerel, and mahi-mahi
Histamine
Eggs have a porous shell that allows for the exchange of moisture and gas; it is covered in ____ that prevents excessive loss and protects the contents
Bloom
The color of the shell is unrelated to food ____ or ____
Value or quality
The inner membrane of the egg contracts, leaving air space in the large end; this air space becomes ____ over time
Larger
An indicator of a good-quality egg is a high proportion of ____ ____
Thick white
Yolk is surrounded by _____ membrane
Vitelline
____ are what anchors the yolk to the white
Chalazae
Egg yolk is a naturally occurring ____ in an emulsion with water
Oil
Nutritive value of an egg:
-80 kcal
-6 g protein
-5 g fat
-Vitamin A, D, riboflavin
The yolk is more ____ than the white and has more protein (by weight), fat, minerals, and vitamins (% composition of protein: egg white 11%; egg yolk 17.5%)
Concentrated
The color of the egg yolk depends on the amount and type of ____ in the hen’s diet
Pigment
What are the three possible grades of an egg?
-AA
-A
-B
_____ is a technique of grading eggs that judges the thickness of white, and the location and condition of the yolk
Candling
Grading of an egg does not include the _____ of the shell nor the ____ of the egg
Color; size
Size of an egg is based on weight per ____
Dozen
Raw eggs can be stored in the fridge at ___-___ degrees for 3-5 weeks
40-45
Grade A eggs can be maintained for ____ months in cold storage (29-32 degrees)
6
Old eggs will ____ due to increased air space
Float
Egg protein coagulates at ___-___ degrees and sets as a custard
62-70
Coagulated egg protein is used to…
-Bind
-Give firmness
-Give stability
-Coat food
-Add brownness
-Clarify liquids
____, or weeping, is the process of liquids being released from a coagulated product
Syneresis
Syneresis occurs when eggs are…
-Cooked at too high a temperature
-Cooked at too low a temperature for too long of a time
Syneresis creates a ____, watery product
Tough
The ____ property of eggs depends on the amount of air beaten in and retained; it happens when an egg foam is heated, air expands, egg whites stretch, and protein coagulates
Leavening
An _____ stiffens an egg white foam by tenderizing the protein and allowing it to extend more easily
Acid
Egg white foams are compared by measuring ____ ____, which measures the relative density of a substance in relation to that of water
Relative gravity
Specific gravity is calculated by dividing the weight of a given volume by the weight of the same volume in ___
Water
Egg white at room temperature whip more quickly and yield a larger volume due to ____ surface tension
Lower
Sugar can also ___ egg white foam
Stabilize
The protein in an egg forms a thin film around droplets of oil which stabilizes _____
Emulsions
Egg yolk yields a stiffer, more ____ emulsion than egg white because it has more protein by weight
Stable
_____ helps yolk act as an emulsifier
Lecithin
_____ stabilize the emulsion by interacting at the surface of the oil droplets to form a layer
Lipoproteins
____ is a food emulsion stabilized by egg yolk
Mayonnaise
When poaching or coddling an egg, use a ____ quality egg as appearance in important
High
___ and ___ improves shape of eggs cooked in water by hastening coagulation
Vinegar and salt
Surfaces of yolk turn green when overcooked or allowed to cool slowly due to the combination of iron from the yolk and sulfur from the whole eggs which creates ____ _____
Ferrous sulfide
When cooking eggs with ____ heat, overcooking toughens the egg
Dry
When cooking eggs with dry heat, undercooking results in excessive ____ when removed from the oven
Shrinkage
In custards, the greater the percent ____, the more tender the gel (objective measure of the quality of a custard)
Sag
Custards made from ____ eggs may be grayer and less yellow, have an eggy flavor, and be watery
Dehydrated
Eggs can be ____ as long as the shell is removed first (can be whole or in parts)
Frozen
10% ___ or ____ (by weight of yolks) is added to frozen eggs as a stabilizer
Salt or sugar
Eggs can be dried by being vacuum packed in ____ gas
Nitrogen
Dried, fortified eggs are ____% white, and ____% yolk
70, 30
Baker’s special eggs have added ____ for added foaming ability
Sucrose
Egg substitutes tend to be higher in ____
Sodium
Deterioration of egg substitutes affects ____ and use
Appearance
Egg substitutes are lower in…
-Fat
-Calories
-Cholesterol
When cooking with egg substitutes, there will be color added in the form of _____, and flavor differences compared to fresh eggs
Carotenoids
Effects of keeping eggs in the fridge too long:
-Loss of carbon dioxide makes eggs more alkaline
-Whites become watery and yolk flatten
-Odors are absorbed
Milk is made up of ___% water, ____% fat, and ____% carbohydrates (lactose)
87; 3.7; 4.9
Milk is made up of ____% protein (complete, high biological value)
3.5
The protein in milk is ___% casein (precipitated at a pH of 4.6, forms soft curd)
80
____ is liquid that drains from the curd of clotted milk, and contains lactose, lactalbumin, lactoglobulin, water soluble vitamins, and minerals
Whey
Milk is a good source of…
-Calcium
-Phosphorus
-Riboflavin
-Vitamin A
-Vitamin D
Milk is low in…
-Iron
-Vitamin C
_____ destroys pathogenic bacteria in milk by heating to 145 degrees for 30 minutes or 160 degrees for 15 seconds
Pasteurization
___ ___ ____ aseptically packaged milk can be stores without refrigeration if unopened
Ultra-high temperature
_____ milk is created when high pressure breaks fat globules to 1/5 of their regular size so that a film of protein surrounds each globule
Homogenized
Homogenized milk is more susceptible to the action of ____, but pasteurization destroys it
Lipase
Vitamin D milk has ____ UPS units added per quart of milk by feeding the cow vitamin D, irradiating the milk, or adding the vitamin (must be labeled “Vitamin D milk”)
400
Low fat milk has ___-___% fat
0.5-2
Skim milk has <___% fat
0.5
Evaporated milk has ____% of the water removed
60
Evaporated milk must contain no less than ____% milk fat
7.9
The brown color of evaporated milk is due to ____ of lactone in canning
Caramelization
____ ____ milk is a concentrated evaporated whole milk with 15-18% added sucrose or glucose
Sweetened condensed
Dried whole milk is ___% fat and does not keep well
26
Dried skim milk is no more than ___% fat and does keep well
1.5
____ skim milk is made by spraying into a heated vacuum chamber
Condensed
Cultured buttermilk is made by adding ___ ____ bacteria to skimmed or partly skimmed milk (recipe: 1 tbsp vinegar or lemon juice, 1 and 3/4 tsp cream of tartar, and enough milk to make 1 cup)
Lactic acid
When using buttermilk in place of regular milk in a recipe, increase the ___ ___
Baking soda
Sweet acidophilus milk is made with skim milk plus lactobacillus acidophilus bacteria which reduces ____
Lactose
____ is milk fermented by lactobacillus, which reduces lactose
Kefir
Low lactose milk, or ____, is treated with lactase in processing or the enzyme is added to regular milk and must be held in the fridge
Lactaid
____ is a coagulated product made by the fermentation of milk sugars by lactic acid bacteria
Yogurt
____ milk is made with skim milk, vegetable fat (typically coconut oil), and water (it is illegal is some states)
Filled
_____ milk resembles milk but contains neither milk fat nor other important dairy ingredients; it is made from casein derivatives or soybeans proteins and vegetable oils
Imitation
When milk is heated, ____ protein precipitates out on the bottom of pan or on the surface of the milk
Whey
To prevent a film from forming on heated milk, beat the milk to produce a ____
Foam
To prevent milk from coating on sides of pan, heat over ____
Water
To prevent curdling, add an ____ slowly and agitate
Acid
An acid added to milk precipitates _____
Casein
Butter, margarine, and oil are made up of ____% milk fat
80
At room temperature, ____ ____ (uptake of water) leads to flavor changes in butter (saturated fat)
Hydrolytic rancidity
Unsaturated oils, especially soybean oil, are more subject to ____ ____ (uptake of oxygen at a double bond in a unsaturated fatty acid)
Oxidative rancidity
List of cream products from highest to lowest fat content:
-Heavy or thick (>36% fat)
-Medium (30-36% fat)
-Whipped cream (35% fat)
-Light or thin (18-30% fat)
-Sour cream (>18% fat)
-Half and half (no less than 10.5% fat)
The production of ____ includes warm milk, lactic acid bacteria, and an enzyme called rennet to coagulate casein, forming the curd
Cheese
____ cheese needs to be refrigerated immediately (cottage cheese, cream cheese)
Uncured
____ cheese has additional whey removed, salt added, and is ripened
Cured
Processed cheese is a high-moisture blend of several natural cheeses with an emulsifier like ____ ____ added (better for cooking because fat will not separate out)
Disodium phosphate
To prevent stringy, curdled-looking cheese products, cook for a ____ amount of time at a moderate temperature
Short
The starchy ____ is rich in protein, and has the outer layer of the hull and bran
Endosperm
Scutellum in the germ of the grain holds most of the ____ content
Thiamin
Grain products are made of ____% starch, along with partially complete protein, and 2% fat that is found in the germ
75
Grain products contain what vitamins and minerals?
-Vitamin E (in germ)
-Thiamin
-Riboflavin
-Phosphorus
____ is a classification/separation method that improves baking qualities by separating large particles from fine powders
Milling
____ is made from the inner portion of the wheat kernel
Farina
Quick-cooking cereals have ___ ___ added
Disodium phosphate
Disodium phosphate added to grains makes cereal ____, so particles swell faster and cook faster
Alkaline
Those on low ____ diets should avoid quick-cook cereal grains
Sodium
Enzyme treated for quicker cooking means the ____ have been split to lessen cooking time
Proteins
Example of whole wheat flour:
Graham flour
Whole wheat flours use the entire grain, freshly ground; they spoil quickly due to the ____ in the germ
Fat
Bread flour (hard wheat) has strong gluten and contains ____% protein
11.8
All-purpose flour is a blend of hard and soft wheat which contains less gluten and ____% protein
10.5
Pastry flour is made from soft wheat and has weaker gluten; it contains ____% protein
7.9
Cake flour is made from soft wheat and has the least and weakest gluten and more starch; contains ____% protein
7.5
Wheat flours are enriched with…
-Thiamin
-Riboflavin
-Niacin
-Iron
-Folic acid
Instant blending, agglomerated, and instantized flours require no _____
Sifting
Self rising flour contains ___ ___, flour, and salt
Baking powder
_____ wheat is high in gluten and commonly used for pasta
Durum
After the bran and germ are removed from durum flour, the starch is ground to make _____ flour
Semolina
Semolina makes products that are _____ after cooking
Flexible
When cooking rice, vitamins are lost when cooked in excess ____ or when drained off
Water
As opposed to pasta, noodles contain…
Egg yolk/eggs solids
You should cook rice in the amount of water that will be _____ during cooking
Absorbed
To cook 1 cup of rice, use ____ cups of water
2
Functional properties of gluten:
-Gives elastic properties
-Forms framework
-Holds in leavening agent
Gluten is made from ____ and ____ through the process of hydration and mixing
Glutenin and gliadin
The color of flour is due to carotenoids; natural agents cause _____ during storage and turn flour from creamy yellow to white
Oxidation
If an oxidizing agent is added to flour, it is labeled “_____”
Bleached
The _____ of flour refers to the capacity to retain leavening and depends on the quality of the gluten
Strength
Adding ____ decreases the volume of the end product because it is heavy and weights down products; you can increase flour and liquid to compensate
Bran
Liquids _____ gluten and start its development
Hydrate
Liquids also start the action of chemical ____ agents
Leavening
Liquids ____ salt and sugar, and ____ starch
Dissolve; gelatinize
_____ can be used as a leavening agent as it expands to leave a hollow shell formed by flour and egg (hot oven is required)
Steam
Examples of products that use steam as a leavening agent:
-Popovers
-Cream puffs
____ can also be used as a leavening agent; it expands when heated before proteins coagulate; can add by beating, folding, and creaming
Air
Examples of products that use air for leavening:
-Angel cake
-Sponge cake
____ ____, produced by the action of yeast on sugar or acid on baking soda, can also be used for leavening
Carbon dioxide
What acids can be used with baking soda to create carbon dioxide?
-Sour milk (buttermilk)
-Cream of tartar
-Molasses
____ ____ provides both the acid and the alkali needed for the reaction
Baking powder
When baking, use ____ tsp of baking powder per cup of flour
1.5
Old baking powder is more alkaline which causes the loss of ____ in baked goods
Thiamin
A deeper brown crust (pretzel) can be created with an ___ solution (baking soda) and solid sugar
Alkaline
____ adds flavor to baked goods and keeps yeast from sticking (inhibits growth)
Salt
Purpose of eggs in baked products:
-Provides stability
-Retains leavening agent
-Distributes shortening by emulsification
-Introduced air
-Adds color and flavor
In baked products, fat adds _____ by coating gluten particles
Tenderness
Sugar is ____ and modifies texture by tenderizing
Hygroscopic
Sugar softens and prevents the development of ____ by absorbing some of the water that it needs
Gluten
Too much sugar results in…
-Coarse cells
-Thick walls
-A shiny crust
-Crumbly products (due to weak/decreased gluten)
Most of the sugar in honey is ____ and ____
Glucose and fructose
When substituting Sweet N Low for sugar in a recipe, use ____ as much
Half
Methods of mixing ingredients:
-Beat
-Cream
-Cut-in
-Fold
-Knead
-Stir
-Whip
____ breads are leavened with either steam, air, or chemical leavening agents; examples include muffins, biscuits, and popovers
Quick
Basic ingredients of a quick bread are ____ and ____
Flour and egg
To mix a batter like a muffin batter, sift dry ingredients, make a ____ in the center, and blend liquids ingredients and add all at once to dry ingredients
Well
Excess mixing can cause loss of carbon dioxide and _____ gluten, as well as a tough and heavy product
Overdeveloped
Characteristics of a good muffin:
-Round
-Pebbled top
-Symmetrical shape
-No long, narrow tunnels
Method of mixing cake batter:
-Cream fat with sugar
-Add egg
-Add sifted dry ingredients in portions, alternating with portions of milk
____ cakes, like a layer or pound cake, use comparatively large amounts of fat and chemical leavening
Short
A layer cake uses ___ ___ for leavening, while a pound cake uses air and steam
Baking powder
A ____ cake increases fat, sugar, and egg which in turn, increases keeping quality
Rich
A golden cake uses egg ___, and white cake uses egg ____, and a yellow cake uses _____ egg
Yolk; white; whole
A foam cake, like angel, sponge, or chiffon, uses _____ as leavening
Air
Angel cake uses egg ____ foam, and sponge cake uses ____ egg foam, and a chiffon cake uses ____ yolks along with egg white foam, baking powder, and oil
White; Whole; Liquid
The ____ structure of a cake depends on ingredients, procedure used, pan shape/size, baking temperature, and the time elapsed before baking
Crumb
The more sugar, the more time is needed to reach the elevated _____ temperature of gluten
Coagulation
As sugar increases, the ____ of the cake increases to the point where the gluten is so weak that gluten strands snap and the cake falls in the center, giving it a gummy texture and crystalline appearance
Volume
Cakes may appear more yellow due to an ____ batter caused by excess baking soda
Alkaline
If a cake has a fallen center, there may be excess…
-Sugar
-Fat
-Baking powder
A tough, dry crumb may be caused by…
-Too much flour or egg
-Too much mixing
-Too little fat or sugar
-Over-baking
A course textured cake may be due to…
-Too much baking powder or sugar
-Over temp too low
Poor volume in a cake may be due to…
-Too little baking powder
-Improper level of sugar or fat
_____ are a modified shortened cake with are higher in fat and lower in sugar and liquid
Cookies
Pastry is made of…
-Flour
-Fat
-Salt
-Liquid
Lard and oil are each ____% fat, while butter and margarine are only ____% fat (when substituting butter for lard, use more)
100; 80
The mixing method for pastry is ____ the fat into the flour and salt, and then adding liquid
Cutting
Avoid over-handling pastry and bake at ___-___ degrees for 10-15 minutes
425-450
_____ in pie crust is enhanced by using oil, soft fats, or fat cut into very small pieces
Tenderness
_____ is promoted by leaving fat in coarse particles; fat in pieces melts and flows, leaving a hole where steam collects and pushes upward against the upper surface of the resulting cell
Flakiness
Spread ____ of a lemon pie on warm to hot filling, bake at 425 for 4-5 minutes
Meringue
A ____ batter has a ratio of liquid to flour of 1:1; example: waffles
Pour
A ____ batter has a ratio of liquid to flour of 1:2; example: muffin
Drop
A ____ dough has a ratio of liquid to flour of 1:3; example: bread
Soft
A _____ dough has a ratio of liquid to flour of 1:4; example: pie crust
Stiff
A high-fat, high-sugar batter absorbs most ____ when deep fried
Oil
When making a yeasted dough, use a high ____ bread flour (if not, you will be left with a crumbly product with poor texture)
Protein
____ and ____ flours absorb most fat when deep-fried
All-purpose and bread
Yeast ferments ____ and releases carbon dioxide
Sugar
In the ____ ____ method of making yeast dough, all ingredients are added before dough is allowed to rise (typical method)
Straight dough
The sponge method can decrease _____ time; must use a strong flour with high protein (bread flour)
Proofing
In the ____ method of preparing yeast dough, the liquid is combined with the yeast and part of the flour and this is allowed to rise/ferment for several hours before the other ingredients are added and dough is kneaded
Sponge
The _____ bread-making method reduces processing time
Continuous
The continuous bread-making method makes a product that is less affected by ____ time and ____
Fermentation; temperature
The continuous bread-making process is a commercial process that substitutes intense mechanical energy to a large degree for traditional bulk ____
Fermentation
Baking at high ____/decreased pressure means that gas expands faster and steam forms earlier
Altitudes
At high altitudes, expansion may be excessive before the heat of the oven has coagulated the ____ and gelatinized the ____ enough to stabilize the structure
Protein; starch
To properly bake at high altitudes, decrease the amount of ____ ____ and increase the amount of ____; also need to bake for longer because the temperature of boiling water is lower at high altitudes
Baking powder; liquid
The temperature of boiling water drops 1 degree F for every ____ foot rise in elevation
500
Starch is composed of ____ and ____ molecules
Amylose and amylopectin
Amylose is responsible for _____ in cooled, cooked pastes
Gelation
Waxy starches like corn, rice, and sorghum have only _____, which is a branched starch
Amylopectin
Amylopectin is ___-___ and stable in freezing and thawing
Non-gelling
Thickening ability of starches, in order of effectiveness:
-Potato
-Waxy corn (most common)
-Waxy rice
-Waxy sorghum
-Tapioca
-Wheat
Wheat flour is even less effective at thickening than pure wheat starch due to the ____ content
Protein
____ starches are more effective thickening agents in starch pastes than their standard counterparts
Waxy
Pastry and cake flour have more ____ and less ____, so they thicken better
Starch; gluten
_____ is the swelling that occurs when starch is heated in water close to the boiling point (heat dissociates bonds, water moves in and swells granules; friction is created, causing paste to thicken)
Gelatinization
Roles of sugar in gelatinization:
-Competes with starch for the water needed for gelatinization
-Increases translucency, reduces viscosity and gel strength
-Can make consistency thin if too much sugar is added (water needed to dissolve excess sugar is not available for the gelatinization of starch)
Add an ____ when cooking a gel is complete (not before) because acid breaks down starch and will produce a runny product
Acid
_____ is a process where after a starch paste has been cooled, it may become less soluble and recrystallize to form a solid-to-rigid gel (it reverts back to the insoluble upon freezing or aging)
Retrogradation
Retrogradation occurs in starches with a high proportion of ____
Amylose
During retrogradation, the hydrogen bonds that hold the gel together break and reform in an orderly crystalline fashion, giving a ____ texture (this is undesirable and decreases food quality)
Gritty
Examples of retrogradation:
-Staling of starch/bread products
-Separation when a gravy thaws
-Old pudding
-Stale bread
Gently ____ food will break the bonds holding the amylose together to revert the retrogradation
Heating
Retrogradation is greatly accelerated by ____; when a starch gel is thawed, water is lost because it is unable to rebind to the fragile spongy mass
Freezing
To avoid retrogradation, prepare frozen products with starch or flour from a ____ cereal grain
Waxy
Some starches are chemically modified by ____ and ____ to change viscosity and its ability to gel
Acids and enzymes
Physical modification of starch means that starches are ___-___, like in instant pudding mixes
Pre-gelatinized
Modified starches are also used to stabilize frozen ____ using waxy maize or modified cornstarch
Gravies
When making gravy, starch is heated without _____; temperatures rise rapidly which degrades the starch
Water
When starch is degraded in the process of making gravy, starch molecules break into fragments called ____
Dextrins (process called dextrinization)
Color change occurs in gray due to the ____ of the starch
Toasting
Starch molecules do not dissolve in cold water, but form a _____
Suspension
When a suspension is heated, molecules swell, thicken, and become _____ due to gelatination
Translucent
When starch is not mixed well enough with the cold liquid or is added directly to the hot liquid, ____ form decreases the thickening (granules on the outside swell as they take up water, and those on the inside remain dry, decreasing thickening)
Lumps
To prevent lumps, mix starch with…
-Fat
-Cold liquid
-Sugar
Heat, acid, and agitation will affect the _____ of swollen starch granules in a paste
Stability
A white sauce starts by making a ____ with half fat, half flour; then it is removed from the heat and liquid is added at 170-180 degrees F, then salt
Roux
You can add an ____ to a white sauce, but not until cooking is complete
Acid
To get a clear, shiny, translucent sauce, use ____ as a thickener
Cornstarch
If a sauce product is starchy tasting and grainy, it is due to ____ ____
Uncooked flour
____ is an example of a thick white sauce
Souffle
To prepare crystalline candy, heat ____ and ____ to get small crystals which have a smooth, creamy feeling
Sugar and liquid
What are sugar crystal inhibitors (keep crystals small and products smooth)?
-Acid (cream of tartar, vinegar)
-Fat (chocolate, milk)
-Protein (milk, egg whites, gelatin)
Sugar and acid combine to promote ____ (hydrolysis) of sucrose, which makes the end products equal amounts of glucose and fructose
Inversion
Ingredients for candy include…
-Sugar
-Water
-Corn syrup or cream of tartar
At the start of the candy-making process, the product is viscous, shiny, and smooth and becomes creamy, dull, and ____ in color; the product rapidly stiffens when cooled
Lighter
_____ sugar has a fixed, orderly pattern of molecules or atoms
Crystalline
Crystalline sugar can produce large crystals, like in ____ candy, or small crystals in things like ____ or ____
Rock; fudge, fondant
Fudge and fondant have a smooth, creamy texture because they have more ingredients that interfere with ____ like milk, chocolate, and corn syrup
Crystallization
Non-crystalline sugar is amorphous and looks _____
Glasslike
Crystallization in non-crystalline sugar is prevented by adding interfering substances like fat or milk or by increasing the concentration of ____
Sugar
____ ____ retards crystallization by increasing viscosity and creating a chewy product
Corn syrup
Non-crystalline products include…
-Hard candies
-Brittles
-Chewy candy
-Gummy candy
In ice cream, _____ is the increase in volume from freezing and whipping
Overrun
Overrun is determined by ____ and should be 70-80%
Weight
_____ is a process that is able to make ice cream smooth by making it easier to beat in air during freezing
Homogenization
____ is essential to keep ice crystals small and to incorporate air into ice cream
Agitation
When making ice cream, hydrate gelatin in ____ water, then heat
Cold
____ interferes with crystal formation, making crystals small and smooth
Fat
Not enough fat in ice cream produces a ____ ice cream with large crystals
Icy
To produce smoother ice cream, increase ____ by using heavy cream instead of light cream
Fat
Other than fat, what else interferes with crystal formation?
-Egg
-Gelatine
-Non-fat milk
_____ is imitation ice cream where butterfat is replaced by hydrogenated vegetable oil
Mellorine
Gelatin contains ____ calories per gram
4
Gelatine is an incomplete protein and it contains no _____, and is low in ____ and ____
Tryptophan, methionine and lysine
Gelatin changes liquid into an ____ solid, can act as a foaming agent in marshmallows and keeps sugar and ice crystals small in candy and ice cream
Elastic
1 tablespoon of gelatin will gel 1 ____ of liquid; mix with cold water to soften and add hot water to disperse
Pint
You should increase the amount of gelatin or decrease liquid when…
-Making a large mold
-When it will stand at room temperature for a long time
-When acid content is high
-When making a whip
______ is an enzyme in fresh or frozen pineapple that breaks down protein and prevents gelation (inactivated by heat 170-180 degrees F)
Bromelain
_____ is a proteolytic enzyme from papaya that will prevent gelation
Papain
Brew coffee at ____-____ degrees F for best flavor
185-203
At higher temperatures (>203 degrees F), ____ are extracted and coffee is bitter
Tannins
A _____ is a single container with a covered basket and stem
Perculator
A percolator gives a ____ and ____ coffee; it requires very hot water that is passed repeatedly through the grounds
Stronger and bitter
A _____ is another coffee maker that has three separate compartments; you add boiling water to the top and let it drip through; water has brief contact with the grounds and creates coffee that is free of bitterness
Dripolator
____-brewed coffee is brewed at higher temperatures than is recommended
Vacuum
Decaff coffee is made using a process that uses ____ ____
Methylene chloride
The ____ controls food additives
FDA
What additives are added to food as emulsifiers?
-Monoglycerides
-Diglycerides
-Lecithin
-Disodium phosphate
What are the uses of sorbitol?
-Humectant (retains moisture)
-Sweetener
-Bulking agent
-Limits mold
What additives are added to products as stabilizers and thickeners?
-Pectin
-Cellulose
-Gelatin
-Gum
-Agar
_____ prevents chocolate from sedimenting in fat-free milk
Carrageenan
What are examples of anti-caking additives added to food?
-Calcium silicate
-Mannitol
Why are nitrites added to food?
-Fixes color
-Inhibits spores of Clostridium botulinum
What are examples of mold inhibitors that are added to food?
-Propionate
-Sodium benzoate (soda)
What antioxidants are added to food?
-Propyl gallate
-BHA
-BHT
-Ascorbic acid
-Alpha-tocopherol
What is an example of an additive used as a flavor enhancer that provides umami flavor?
MSG
_____ evaluation of food uses organoleptic measurements (sense organs) to test color, odor, taste, and texture
Qualitative (subjective)
An ____ test of food determines differences and similarities
Analytical
A _____ test measures the ability to recognize small differences between samples
Difference/Discrimination
In a ____ ____ test, two samples are presented side by side to compare specific qualities
Paired comparison
In a ____ test, three samples are presented with two being alike; goal is to determine which ones are identical
Triangle
In a ____ test, the goal is to classify differences in color/taste in a serial or directional manner done with untrained panelists
Ranking/scaling
An ____ test is used with untrained panelists to determine preferences, acceptance, or opinions of a product
Affective
A ____ rating system is a sale that uses smiling faces
Hedonic
A ____ ____ compares two samples for preference of a specific attribute
Paired preference
A ____ test is an extension of a paired preference test where additional samples are presented
Ranking
In the flavor profile method, a ____ professional analyzes and records the aroma and flavor in great detail (descriptive flavor analysis profile)
Trained
A _____ is an objective measuring tool that measures the tenderness/firmness of products like a baked custard
Penetrometer
A _____ measures the viscosity of liquids or semi-solid foods that flow; measures the flow on an inclined plane or on a rotational basis
Viscosimeter
The line spread test measures the viscosity of liquids or semi-solid foods that flow on a ____ surface
Flat
____ ____ compares the lightness of products (egg white foam), the ratio of the density of food to that of water, or the weight of a given volume of a sample divided by the weight of the same volume of water
Specific gravity
Food biotechnology or ____ ____ are scientific techniques used to produce specific desired traits in plants, animals, or microorganisms through the use of genetic knowledge
Genetic engineering
What crops are commonly genetically engineered?
-Corn
-Soybeans
-Canola
-Papaya
Genetically modifying crops results in…
-Plants more resistant to disease, insects, and weeds
-Plants that require less water
-Extended shelf life
-Improved efficiency of food production
