Developmental Area Flashcards

Question

How socially sensitive is the research of Bandura?

Answer 1

It can be socially sensitive to suggest that children will imitate model's behaviour as parents of ill-behaved kids may be subject to discrimination for bad parenting.

Answer 2

Replicable because of the standardised procedure, for example in stage 3, All 72 children taken back to the main room, one by one and were observed throw a one-way mirror. Falsifiable because researchers can replicate the study an then find different results to prove Bandura wrong.

Answer 3

Asthma is a chronic condition that affects about 1 in 10 people. Even though there are treatments for asthma, the problem is that some people (particularly little children), do not use their inhalers correctly.

Answer 4

The aim of this study was to see if operant conditioning could be used to encourage children to want to use their inhalers, and when they do; use it correctly.

Answer 5

32 children from Australia aged between 1.5 and 6 years. (22 boys, 10 girls)

Answer 6

Parents were contacted by phone before being visited at home. Written, informed consent was obtained from parents before they filled in a questionnaire about their child’s current inhaler spacer device (either Aerochamber or Breath-a-Tech). Parents were given a Funhaler to use with their child for 2 weeks. After the 2 weeks, parents were contacted again and given another questionnaire to fill in (this time asking them about the Funhaler spacer device).

Answer 7

% of children who had used their inhaler the day before increased from 59% (inhaler) to 81% (funhaler) % of children who achieved 4 or more breath cycles per delivery increased (50 existing inhaler to 80 funhaler) % of parents who always successfully medicated their child 10 with existing inhaler- 73% with funhaler Attitude of parents to medication 10% with inhaler to 61% with funhaler

Answer 8

From the questionnaires, it would appear that the Funhaler led to an increase in use, and correct use at that (four or more breaths per cycle). Parents also tended to be less likely to give up and resort to a nebuliser if they were using the Funhaler.

Answer 9

This study falls within the developmental area as it is illustrating a way in which children learn and how parents can help their children to acquire desired behaviours – namely, through both positive and negative reinforcement.

Answer 10

In relation to the key theme of external influences on children’s behaviour, Chaney et al . have shown how the external influences favoured by the behaviourist perspective have a great impact on children’s behaviour. The Funhaler changed not only the use of the inhaler, to increase adherence, but also the attitude towards the inhaler in both parents and children, which would be linked to increased adherence.

Answer 11

A problem with using self-report, which will affect the validity of the research, is the problem of social desirability. Society demands parents to take care of their children, and to admit a failure to do so is unthinkable, therefore parents might lie to do as society wishes (social desirability). I By using a field experiment, Chaney et al . had to contend with extraneous variables which might also reduce the validity of the research. Without bringing the children in to a lab and giving inhalers, we have no way of knowing what went on during this research which might have also influenced the use of the inhaler. This is where we would reduce the ecological validity of the research and we would no longer see natural behaviour. The natural setting of the research, taking place in the child’s home where they would normally use their inhaler, means ecological validity is high.

Answer 12

Although this was conducted in the field, there were many aspects that were standardised, aiding replicability. The questionnaire was the same for each participant, and the length of time using the Funhaler was the same. The Funhaler was the same for all the children – same design, same instructions and so the action of the Funhaler would have been the same for each child, with weak spins for poor breath exhalation and faster spins for good breath exhalation. However, the fact that the study was conducted with only 32 children raises the question of whether the sample was large enough to establish a consistent effect.

Answer 13

The sample were all from Australia which, arguably, makes the study ethnocentric as it is not obvious that the toys built into the design of the Funhaler would appeal equally to children from all cultures.

Answer 14

It is more nurture as it suggests that the upbringing and experiences influence their behaviour, for example the funhaler was used more and it changed the behaviour of the kids as they used it more than their original inhaler.

Answer 15

It is more free-will because the kids had the ability to choose which inhaler they use and how many times they use it.

Answer 16

It's more reductionist because it focuses on the single factor of operant conditioning and how that influences the behaviour of the kids and the amount of times they use the funhaler.

Answer 17

Although there might be individual differences in the amount of inhaler use and the effectiveness of the way it was used, this study is looking clearly at the role of the situation in determining behaviour. It is the features of the inhaler, where a child has to use an inhaler, which influence the frequency and success of its use. However, the differences in attitude between the children and the parents both prior to and after the use of the Funhaler show how individual differences can influence behaviour, with some children having a phobia of their inhaler and other children taking pleasure in using their inhaler.

Answer 18

First, there is its usefulness in helping us understand how children develop and acquire behaviours, and how the principles of the behaviourist perspective can be used to facilitate this. Second, the practical application of incorporating rewards into behaviours which we want to be repeated can be used in health settings to improve adherence or reduce unwanted illness behaviours, but also can be used in education and parenting.

Answer 19

Although the participants were not told about the Funhaler at the start of the experiment, nonetheless it can be assumed that all ethical guidelines were adhered to. Importantly, by using a repeated measures design, no participants missed out on the beneficial effects of the Funhaler intervention.

Answer 20

It is socially sensitive because it could suggest that behaviour can be changed through operant conditioning.

Answer 21

Replicable as it has a standardised procedure, all children had the funhaler for the same amount of time and they all had the same funhaler

Answer 22

In terms of the extent to which Chaney et al .’s study changes our understanding of the key theme of ‘external influences on children’s behaviour’, it can be seen as adding to our understanding of how this can happen, Chaney et al .’s study shows another way in which children can learn – namely, through a process of reinforcement.

Answer 23

In terms of the extent to which Chaney et al .’s study changes our understanding of individual, social and cultural diversity, the fact that it was carried out in Australia compared to Bandura’s older study of children in America, seems to imply that learning occurs whatever the culture. Both studies used male and female children and seem to suggest that learning certainly occurs in childhood, through both imitation and reinforcement. However, neither of these studies shows any insight into how adult individuals might learn behaviour.

Answer 24

Piaget's Theory: Heteronomous Moral Reasoning weighs the outcome of the action to determine how bad it is. Autonomous Moral Reasoning takes into account the intent of the person committing the action.

Answer 25

Kohlberg wanted to provide research that would back up his theory of moral development inspired by Piaget.

Answer 26

75 boys aged 10-16 until they were 22-28 years of age (he followed the same boys for 12 years)

Answer 27

Every boy was presented with moral dilemmas (including the Heinz dilemma) every 3 years during this time. Using the answers the boys gave, Kohlberg ranked them in six categories (1 being the least morally developed to 6 – most morally developed) if about 50% of their responses to any of these moral concepts fall into that stage. This formed his theory of stages of moral development. Kohlberg repeated the study on boys from Taiwan, Turkey, Mexico, Malaysia, Canada and the UK

Answer 28

3 levels of moral development: Pre-conventional Conventional Post-conventional 6 stages of morality: Stage 2: self interest orientation (child behaves in a self centered way) Stage 4: Authority and social order orientation (The child sees right behaviour as duty to show respect and maintain social order) Stage 6: Universal ethical principles (Child now bases judgement on universal human rights of justice, equality, reciprocity and respect for the individual.)

Answer 29

People’s moral development follows an invariant developmental sequence. This means everyone, regardless of culture, social background or religion moves through the same 6 stages in the same order. They never skip a stage or move backwards through the stages (although not everyone reaches the last stage).

Answer 30

Longitudinal study

Answer 31

Kohlberg’s research can be seen as developmental. One aspect of development is the idea that we change over time, passing through a prescribed set of stages, in an invariant (non-changing) order. Each one has to be passed through and the skills acquired used to move into the next stage.

Answer 32

In relation to the key theme of moral development , Kohlberg’s stage theory identifies how moral thinking changes over time. His original research was limited to one culture. However, he did follow this up in other cultures and this helped him to claim that his was a universal theory, with context playing a part in reasoning. The level of reasoning, from self-interest to the interest of humanity, did not change, whatever the culture.

Answer 33

Giving participants hypothetical moral dilemmas could lack ecological validity as how people say they would act in a given situation may be very different from how they actually would act if they found themselves in that situation. Asking any participant to report on their thoughts or behaviour is leaving the data open to reduced validity, as there is the chance of demand characteristics or social desirability. There are some other factors which might affect the validity, such as extraneous variables, and it could be factors such as upbringing, socio-economic status or education which actually influence moral development, not the invariant nature of the stages themselves. It could be that the dilemmas which Kohlberg used are not testing moral development, but maybe linguistic understanding, or intelligence. This would reduce the validity.

Answer 34

The fact that Kohlberg conducted his research on a relatively large sample (the 75 American boys and participants from other countries too) meant that he was not just seeing fluke, ‘one-off’ results. He also had a standardised procedure in which he presented the same moral dilemmas to different participants, along with the same questions for them to answer.

Answer 35

He does hint at research in Taiwan and Atayal when comparing the reasoning behind the moral thinking. Assuming that all people will have the same moral development as the American boys is also a case of ethnocentric bias.

Answer 36

Kohlberg’s theory of moral development suggests that within each individual is an innate predetermined sequence of stages which, whatever the situation in which the child is brought up, will remain invariant. This would support the nature side of the debate, suggesting that our moral development is innate. However, this explanation doesn’t consider to any great degree the influence that culture may have in influencing the child’s moral reasoning. There is an acknowledgement of the cultural context explaining the stage of moral thinking, but there is no suggestion that the culture would actually alter what the rules of morality are.

Answer 37

As Kohlberg’s theory suggests that the stages of moral development are invariant and happen at fairly distinct chronological ages, it can be considered deterministic. There appears to be little free will or choice over how you will progress through the stages. You cannot choose to change or avoid any of the stages – your cognitive development will ensure you pass through these stages, and this will in turn determine your moral judgements and behaviour.

Answer 38

mostly individual because our moral development is part of our personality and it is not really the situation and the circumstances that influences the development of our morality.

Answer 39

It's useful to understand how morality could develop and how this can explain criminal behaviour as well.

Answer 40

It can be assumed that Kohlberg’s participants consented to take part in his research, and they could certainly have withdrawn by just not cooperating when he returned three years later to collect further data from them.

Answer 41

Socially sensitive to the point that people with lower levels of morality can get discriminated against and labeled as criminals.

Answer 42

Kohlberg believed his research and theory to adopt a scientific stance, although with the lack of control over extraneous variables and the subjective interpretation of the evidence to support his theory it may lack some of the validity and objectivity of the scientific paradigm. That said, it can be seen as falsifiable. Falsifiability of a theory is testing that theory to try and prove it wrong. Kohlberg’s research showed that the stages of moral development were reflected in the reasoning given by the boys. This therefore showed the theory was not wrong. However as with any subjective data being used to support a theory, it is dependent upon the researcher making a case for the evidence to support the theory.

Answer 43

Culture - a human made part of the environment. It includes the way people do things (like make buildings or music) as well as beliefs, values and norms. Individualistic: people’s identities are defined by personal choices and achievements; self-reliance and the rights of individuals to ‘do their own thing’ are emphasised. Collectivist: people’s identities are defined by the groups they seem themselves as a part of ; group goals take priority over individual goals, and maintaining group harmony is important.

Answer 44

To find out if the culture a child grows up in (individualist or collectivist) affects their views about truth-telling and lying. To find out if the views of children about truth-telling and lying change as they grow older.

Answer 45

120 Chinese children (From Hangzhou) and 108 Canadian children (from Fredericton, New Brunswick) aged 7,9 or 11

Answer 46

Each child was seen individually and had 4 stories read to them (in a random order). 1: A child would behave anti-socially, and then lie to their teacher about what they had done 2: A child would behave anti-socially, and then tell the truth to their teacher about it 3: A child would behave pro-socially, and then lie to their teacher about what they had done 4: A child would behave pro-socially, and then tell the truth to their teacher about what they had done Half of the children had social stories and half had physical stories read to them. -Social: The behaviour impacts another child; like giving money to another child for lunch -Physical: The behaviour impact on the environment (physical objects) like tidying the classroom Following each story they were asked 2 questions: Is what xxx did good or naughty? Is what xxx said to their teacher [about what they had done] good or naughty? They responded to these questions on a 7 point scale, very very good, very good, good, neither, naughty, very naughty, very very naughty.

Answer 47

-Chinese children and Canadian children gave the same ratings for lying and truth telling in anti-social situations (both rated truth telling as positive) -Children of both cultures rated the pro social behaviour positively overall. -Canadian children gave gave similar ratings for truth telling at all ages. BUT Chinese children rated truth telling less positively as they got older.

Answer 48

The conclusion is that moral development is different in different cultures as a result of socio-cultural norms and practices, and not only as a result of cognitive development as proposed by earlier research.

Answer 49

Lee et al .’s research can be seen as falling within the developmental area because it is looking at changes in children’s moral development not only by age but also by culture – it is looking at the influence of both of these factors on a child’s moral thinking.

Answer 50

In relation to the key theme of moral development , this study shows that moral development still occurs, as there are age-related changes in moral thinking within cultures.

Answer 51

Lee et al . tried to control as many variables as possible e.g. the same age and gender mix as far as possible in the two groups. They also reduced the participant variables in the choice of target population, i.e. from non-heavy industry cities. However, there are still some factors which might have affected the results. For example, the contact with the researchers could be seen differently in different cultures, as could the familiarity with rating scales. They were randomly allocated to each of the two orders so that there was no bias in which students had which stories. The children themselves were randomly allocated to either the pro-social or anti-social conditions, so again no bias. The use of counterbalancing also controlled for order effects, so that there was no response bias, or children getting bored and just saying the same thing in the last stories as the first ones.

Answer 52

The study followed a standardised procedure, and the inclusion of the eight stories that the researchers used during their investigation would make it possible for their study to be replicated. With a reasonably large number of children in each condition, it can be assumed that the sample was large enough to establish consistent effect. Each child had either four social or four physical stories read to them. This helped make the results more reliable than if just one story had been read to each child as it meant that the data obtained from each child would have reflected a consistent, settled viewpoint as seen across a number of scenarios.

Answer 53

As a cross-cultural study, Lee et al .’s investigation was clearly trying hard to avoid being ethnocentric. However, there are questions to be asked about whether their procedure would have been perceived in the same way by children from both cultures (see above). Also, it is questionable whether Canada can be taken to illustrate all ‘Western’ cultures any more than China can be taken to represent all ‘Eastern’ cultures.

Answer 54

more nurture as it suggests that your experiences and upbringing like culture influences the moral development.

Answer 55

Lee et al .’s research challenges Kohlberg’s theory that the moral positions we adopt are determined by the stage of moral development we are at and that this follows an invariant universal pattern. However, arguably, it is just as determinist but in a different way, suggesting that what determines our moral thinking is the culture in which we grow up.

Answer 56

more reductionist as it suggest that culture is the biggest influence on our moral development.

Answer 57

Lee et al .’s research shows that the situation or culture that a child is brought up in will significantly change their moral thinking. This suggests that levels of preconventional, conventional and post-conventional moral thinking, reflecting the moral values of honesty and integrity, are not universal across all cultures.

Answer 58

Can be useful to understand the differences between cultures and truth telling/lying

Answer 59

it can be assumed that consent for the children to take part was given by their parents. Presumably, the unequal numbers of children from the two cultures (120 from China and 108 from Canada) could reflect at least some Canadian parents exercising their right to withdraw.

Answer 60

it can be socially sensitive because the conclusion is that moral development is different in different cultures as a result of socio-cultural norms and practices. This means that some cultural practices may be subject to discrimination and prejudice for being different to other cultures.

Answer 61

It is scientific because it can be proved wrong as researchers can repeat the study and provide different findings. Replicable because it has a standardised procedure, The study followed a standardised procedure, and the inclusion of the eight stories that the researchers used during their investigation would make it possible for their study to be replicated.

Answer 62

In terms of the extent to which Lee et al .’s study changes our understanding of the key theme of ‘moral development’, this study disagrees with Kohlberg’s theory of universal stages of moral thinking, and suggests that cultural differences not only change the context of the thinking, but also the fundamental moral rules, so that the rule ‘you must not tell lies’ becomes in some cultures ‘you should tell lies in certain circumstances’.

Answer 63

In relation to the extent in which Lee et al .’s study changes our understanding of individual, social and cultural diversity, there are clear cultural differences between children’s answers to the stories. It suggests that culture can play a significant role in a child’s moral development, and it did this by looking at both boys and girls from the ages 7 to 11 years. However, it doesn’t show the influence of culture on individuals when they reach adulthood, and it could be that adults are more likely to reject their cultural norms, once they are exposed to other cultures. Also, these were two very different cultures, but it would be interesting to see how the rest of the world reflected either of these two stances regarding lie-telling.

Answer 64

Both studies used young children as their participants. For example, Bandura's sample had children between the ages of 37-69 months old. Similarly, Chaney's sample had children between the ages of 1.5-6 years old. Both studies were basing their research in behaviourist principles of learning. For example, Bandura looked at how children imitate aggressive behaviour that have observed in adult role models whereas, Chaney et al looked at how children will increase desirable behaviour such as medical compliance when positively reinforced .

Answer 65

A difference is the sample size. For example, Bandura had a larger sample size of 72 children whereas Chaney had a smaller sample of 32 children. Bandura’s study was carried out in America, whereas Chaney’s study was carried out in Australia. A difference is the location where the study was carried out. For example, Bandura's study was carried out in America whereas Chaney's study was conducted in Australia

Answer 66

Both studies had cross-cultural aspects to them. For example, Kohlberg repeated his study in multiple different countries like Taiwan, Turkey and Mexico. Similarly, Lee carried out his study in Canada and China. Both studies used children as their participants. For example, Kohlberg's sample had 75 boys aged 10-16 to 22-28. Similarly Lee's sample had 120 Chinese children and 108 Canadian children.

Answer 67

A difference is sample size. Kohlberg's sample had 75 boys aged 10-16 to 22-28. Whereas, Lee's sample had 120 Chinese children and 108 Canadian children. A difference is the type of study. For example, Kohlbery conducted a longitudinal study because he followed his sample for 12 years. Whereas, Lee conducted a snapshot study because data from Chinese and Canadian children collected was in one go.