Definitions Flashcards
1
Q
Abiotic factors
A
Abiotic factors are non-living factors.
2
Q
Active immunity
A
Active immunity is the production of a person’s own antibodies in response to foreign antigens that enter the body.
3
Q
Active site
A
The active site is the part of the enzyme that combines with the substrate.
4
Q
Active transport
A
Active transport (in the form of ATP) is used to move molecules, often against a concentration gradient, i.e. from low to high concentrations.
5
Q
Adaptation
A
An adaptation is any alteration that improves an organism’s chances of survival or preproduction.
6
Q
Adhesion
A
Adhesion occurs when different molecules stick together.
7
Q
Aerobic respiration
A
The controlled release of energy from food using oxygen.
8
Q
Alleles
A
Alleles are different (or alternative) forms of the same gene.
9
Q
All or nothing law
A
The all or nothing law states that if the threshold is reached, an impulse is carried, but if the threshold is not reached, no impulse is carried.
10
Q
Anabolic reactions
A
Anabolic reactions use energy to convert smaller molecules into larger molecules.
11
Q
Anaerobic respiration
A
Anaerobic respiration is the controlled release of energy from food without the use of oxygen.
12
Q
Antagonistic pair
A
An antagonistic pair are two muscles that have opposite effects to each other.
13
Q
Antibiotics
A
Antibiotics are chemicals produced by micro-organisms that stop the growth of or kill, other micro-organisms without damaging human tissue.
14
Q
Antibody
A
An Antibody is a protein produced by white blood cells (called lymphocytes) in response to a specific antigen.
15
Q
Antigen
A
An antigen is a foreign molecule that stimulates the production of antibodies.
16
Q
Appendicular skeleton
A
Ones appendicular skeleton is composed of the limbs (arms and legs), the pectoral girdle (shoulder) and the pelvic girdle (hip).
17
Q
Artificial active immunity
A
Artificial active immunity occurs when a pathogen is medically introduced into the body (also known as a vaccination).
18
Q
Artificial passive immunity
A
Artificial passive immunity occurs when a person is given an injection containing antibodies made by another organism.
19
Q
Aseptic or Asepsis
A
Aseptic or Asepsis means that measures are taken to exclude unwanted micro-organisms.
20
Q
Asexual reproduction
A
Asexual reproduction is a reproduction where only one parent is involved.
21
Q
Autotrophic organism
A
An autotrophic organism is an organism which makes its own food.
22
Q
Axial skeleton
A
The axial skeleton consists of the skull, spine, ribs and sternum.
23
Q
Bacteriophage (or phage)
A
A bacteriophage (or phage) is a virus that infects bacteria.
24
Q
Balanced diet
A
A balanced diet is a diet which contains all the necessary food types in the correct proportion.
25
Batch culture
Batch culture is the growth of cells in a sealed container (or bioreactor) over a short period of time and under ideal conditions until all the nutrients are used up.
26
Biogenesis or Continuity of life
Biogenesis or Continuity of life is when living things arise from other living things of the same type.
27
Biology
Biology is the study of living things.
28
Biomolecules
Biomolecules are chemicals that are made inside a living thing.
29
Bioprocessing
Bioprocessing is the use of enzyme-controlled reactions to produce a product.
30
Bioreactor
A bioreactor is a vessel or container in which living cells or their products are used to make a product.
31
Biosphere
A biosphere is a certain part of the planet containing living organisms.
32
Biotechnology
Biotechnology is the use of living things or their components (especially cells or enzymes) to manufacture useful products or to carry out useful reactions.
33
Biotic factors
Biotic factors are living factors.
34
Birth control
Birth control is methods taken to limit the number of children that are born.
35
Blastocyst or Blastula
A blastocyst or blastula is a hollow ball of cells formed from a morula.
36
Blood pressure
Blood pressure is the force exerted by the blood against the walls of the blood vessels (mainly the arteries).
37
Bud
A bud is a potential growth point that may develop into a shoot, a leaf or a flower.
38
Bulb
A bulb is a modified bud.
39
Cancer
Cancer is a group of disorders in which certain cells lose their ability to control both the rate of mitosis and the number of times which mitosis takes place.
40
Carnivores
Carnivores are animals that feed mainly on animals (eg dogs, cats, ladybirds).
41
Carpels
Carpels are the female part of the flower.
42
Catabolic reactions
Catabolic reactions are reactions which release energy when a complex molecule is broken down into a simpler form.
43
Catalyst
A catalyst is a substance that speeds up a reaction, without itself being used up in the process.
44
Cell continuity
Cell continuity means that all cells develop from pre-existing cells.
45
Cell cycle
The cell cycle is the changes that take place in a cell during the period between one cell division and the next.
46
Cellular energy
Cellular energy is the energy stored in the bond of the biomolecules.
47
Centromere
The centromere is the point at which the chromosomes are attached in a double-stranded chromosome.
48
Characteristics
Characteristics are traits or features that are inherited genetically.
49
Chemosynthesis
Chemosynthesis is the production of food using the energy released from chemical reactions.
50
Chemotropism
Chemotropism is a change in the growth of a plant in response to chemicals.
51
Chromatin
Chromatin is the name given to chromosomes when they are elongated and not dividing.
52
Chromosomes
Chromosomes are coiled threads of DNA and protein that become visible in the nucleus at cell division.
53
Climatic factors
Climatic factors refer to the weather over a long period of time.
54
Closed circulatory system
A closed circulatory system means that blood remains in a continuous system of blood vessels.
55
Cohesion
Cohesion is the sticking of similar molecules to each other.
56
Community
A community are all of the different populations in an area.
57
Competition
Competition occurs when organisms actively struggle for a resource that is in short supply.
58
Conclusion
A conclusion is a summary of the results of an experiment.
59
Conservation
Conservation is the wise management of the existing natural resources in an ecosystem, in order to maintain a wide range of habitats and prevent the death and extinction of organisms.
60
Consumers
Consumers are organisms that take in food from another organism.
61
Contest competition
Contest competition is the active physical contest between two individual organisms.
62
Continuous flow (food processing)
Continuous flow in food processing is the growth of cells in an open container (or bioreactor), where nutrients are added and at the end, products are removed all the time at a rate which maintains the volume of liquid and the number of cells.
63
Contraception
Contraception is the deliberate prevention of fertilisation or pregnancy.
64
Control (experiment)
A control is used to provide a comparison (or standard) against which the actual experiment can be judged.
65
Copulation
Copulation is the act of having sexual intercourse.
66
Cotyledon
A cotyledon is a seed leaf.
67
Cross-pollination
Cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen from an anther to a stigma on a different plant.
68
Cutting
Cutting is when a portion of a plant is removed from the parent plant and grown into a new, independent plant.
69
Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is the living material in the cell outside the nucleus.
70
Data
Data is the measurements, observations or information gathered from an experiment.
71
Decomposers
Decomposers are organisms which feed on dead organic matter.
72
Denatured enzyme
A denatured enzyme is an enzyme that has lost its shape and can no longer carry out its function.
73
Denitrification
Denitrification is the conversion of nitrates to nitrogen gas.
74
Detritus feeders
Detritus feeders are organisms that feed on small pieces of dead organic matter.
75
Diastole
Diastole is when the heart chambers relax.
76
Diffusion
Diffusion is the spreading out molecules from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration.
77
Diploid cell
A diploid cell is a cell that has two sets of chromosomes (i.e. It has two of each type of chromosome in the nucleus).
78
Dispersal
Dispersal is the transfer of a seed or fruit away from a parent plant.
79
Dormancy
Dormancy is a resting period when seed undergoes no growth and has reduced cell activity or metabolism.
80
Double blind
Double blind testing is when both the investigator and the participant are unaware of the nature of the treatment the participent is receiving.
81
Ecological niche
An ecological niche (of an organism) is the fundamental role it plays in the community.
82
Ecology
Ecology is the study of the interactions between living things (organisms) and between organisms and their environment.
83
Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a group of clearly distinguished organisms that interact with their environment as a unit.
84
Ectotherms
Ectotherms gain or lose heat in correspondance with their external environment.
85
Edaphic factors
Edaphic factors are factors which relate to soil.
86
Ejaculation
Ejaculation is the release of semen from the penis.
87
Endocrine gland
An endocrine gland is a ductless gland which produces hormones, which are released directly into the bloodstream.
88
Endospermic seed
An endospermic seed contains some endosperm when fully formed.
89
Endotherms
Endotherms are organisms which generate their own heat from metabolic reactions.
90
Enzymes
Enzymes are proteins that speed up a reaction without being used up on the reaction.
91
Enzyme specificity
Enzyme specificity means each enzyme will react with only one particular substrate.
92
Ethics
Ethics relates to whether conduct is right or wrong.
93
Eukaryotic cells
Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and cell organelles, all of which are enclosed by membranes.
94
Evolution
Evolution is the way in which living things change genetically to produce new forms of life over long periods of time.
95
Excretion
Excretion is the removal of waste products of metabolism from the body.
96
Exhalation
Exhalation is breathing out.
97
Exocrine glands
Exocrine glands release their product into ducts or tubes.
98
Experiment
An experiment is a test for a hypothesis.
99
Facultative parasite
A facultative parasite is a parasite that can get its froid from a live or dead host.
100
Fauna
Fauna are all the animals in an ecosystem.
101
Fermentation
Fermentation is another name or anaerobic respiration.
102
Fertilisation
Fertilisation is the the union of the male and female garages to form a diploid zygote.
103
Filtration
Filtration is when water and small molecules pass (under high pressure) from the blood into the nephron.
104
Flora
Flora are all the plants in an ecosystem.
105
Food chain (food grazing chain)
The food chain is a sequence of organisms in which one is eaten by the next member of the chain.
106
Food web
A food web is two or more interlinked food chains.
107
Frequency
A frequency is the chance of finding a named species with any one throw of a quadrat.
108
Fruit
A fruit is a developed ovary.
109
Gametes
Gametes are haploid cells capable of fusion.
110
Ganglion
A ganglion is a group of cell bodies located outside of the CNS.
111
General defence system
Th general defence system acts as a barrier to all pathogens attempting to gain entry to the human body.
112
Geotropism (gravitropism)
Geotropism is the change of growth in a plant in response to gravity.
113
Germination
Germination is the regrow that of the embryo, after a period of dormancy, if the environmental conditions are suitable.
114
Germ layers
Germ layers are the basic layers of the cell in the blastocyst from which all adult tissue and organs will form.
115
Gestation
Gestation is the length of time spent in the uterus from fertilisation to birth.
116
Glycolysis
Glycolysis is the conversion of Glucose ino two molecules of pyruvic acid.
117
Gonad
A gonad is an organ that produces sex cells in animals.
118
Grafting
Grafting is the joining and uniting of part of one plant to a second plant.
119
Growth inhibitor
A growth inhibitor is a chemical that causes a reduction in growth of plants.
120
Growth plate
A growth plate is the area between the epiphysis and the diaphysis in a long bone within which bone growth occurs.
121
Growth promoter
A growth promoter is a chemical which causes increased growth in plants.
122
Growth regulator
A growth regulator is a chemical which controlls the growth of a plant.
123
Habitat
A habitat is a the place where a plant or an animal lives (and is also the local area of study).
124
Haploid cell
A haploid cell is a cell which has one set of chromosomes, (i.e. It has only one of each type of chromosome in the nucleus).
125
Helper T cells
Helper T cells stimulate B cells and killer T cells.
126
Herbaceous plants
Herbaceous plants are plants which do not contain wood (or lignin).
127
Herbivores
Herbivores are animals that feed mainly on plants (e.g. sheep, cattle, rabbits).
128
Heterotrophic organism
A heterotrophic organism is an organism that takes in food made by other organisms.
129
Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the ability of an organism to maintain a constant internal environment.
130
Homologous pair
A homologous pair is two chromosomes of similar size with the same sequence of genes.
131
Hormone
A hormone is a chemical messenger produced by an endocrine gland and carried by the bloodstream to another part of the body, where it has a specific effect.
132
Hydrotropism
Hydrotropism is a change in growth of a plant in response to water.
133
Hypha
A hypha is a tube or filament in a fungus.
134
Hypothesis
A hypothesis is an educated guess based on observations.
135
Immobilised enzymes
Immobilised enzymes are attached, or fixed, to each other, or to an inert material.
136
Immunisation
Immunisation occurs when we produce or are injected with antibodies against a pathogen.
137
Immunity
Immunity is the ability to resist infection
138
Implantation
Implantation is the embedding of the fertilised egg into the lining of the uterus.
139
Induced immunity
Induced immunity is the ability to resist disease caused by specific pathogens by the production of antibodies.
140
Infertility
Infertility is the inability to produce offspring.
141
Inhalation
Inhalation is breathing in.
142
Insemination
Insemination is the release of semen into the vagina, just outside the cervix.
143
Interneuron (intermediate relay or association neuron)
The interneuron carries information between sensory and motor neurons.
144
Internode
The internode is the region on a stem between two nodes.
145
Interphase
Interphase is the phase in the cell cycle when the cell is not dividing.
146
Inter-specific competition
Inter-specific competition occurs between different members of different species.
147
Intra-specific competition
Intra-specific competition occurs between members of the same species.
148
In-vitro fertilisation (IVF)
In-vitro fertilisation (IVF) is the act of removing the eggs from an ovary and fertilising them outside of the body.
149
Joint
A joint is where two or more bones meet.
150
Key
A key means naming organisms by answering a series of questions with alternative answers.
151
Killer T cells
Killer T cells destroy abnormal human body cells.
152
Lactation
Lactation is the secretion of milk by the mammary gland (breast) of the female.
153
Larynx
The larynx is the voice box.
154
Law or Principle
A law or principle arises from a theory that has been shown to be valid when fully tested over a long period of time.
155
Layering
Layering is the growth of a new plant from a stem that is still attached to the parent plant.
156
Lenticels
Lenticels are openings in the stems of plants to allow for gas exchange.
157
Life
Life is the possession of all of the following characteristics; organised, requiring nutrition and excretion, capable of responding and reproducing.
158
Ligaments
Ligaments are strong, fibrous, slightly elastic tissues that connect bone to bone.
159
Lignin
Lignin is a strengthening material found in some plant cell walls.
160
Meiosis
Meiosis is a form of nuclear division in which four daughter nuclei contain half the chromosome number of the parent nucleus.
161
Memory B cells
Memory B cells are cells which survive for years after the infection is eliminated and can make the specific antibody if the same infection later enters the body.
162
Memory T cells
Memory T cells are cells which survive for years after the infection is eliminated and can stimulate the specific B cells and killer T cells if the same infection enters the body.
163
Menopause
Menopause is when the ovulation and menstruation stop happening in a female.
164
Menstrual cycle
The menstrual cycle is a series of events that occur every 28 days on average in the female if fertilisation not taken place.
165
Menstruation
Menstruation is the discharge of the lining of the uterus (the endometrium) and the unfertilised egg.
166
Meristem
The meristem is a plant tissue which is capable of mitosis.
167
Metabolism
Metabolism is the sum of all the chemical reactions in an organism.
168
Micro-organisms
Micro-organisms are small living things.
169
Micropropagation
Micropropagation is the growth of plants from small pieces of tissue under sterile conditions on a specially selected medium.
170
Mitosis
Mitosis is a form of nuclear division in which one nucleus divides to form two nuclei, each containing the same number of chromosomes with identical genes.
171
Morula
The morula is the solid ball of cells formed from a zygote by mitosis.
172
Motor (or Efferent) neuron
A motor (or efferent) neuron takes a message from the CNS to a muscle or gland.
173
Mycelium
Mycelium is a (usually) visible mass of hyphae.
174
Natural active immunity
Natural active immunity occurs when a pathogen enters the body in the normal way (i.e. when you get an infection).
175
Natural passive immunity
Natural passive immunity occurs when a child gets antibodies from its mother.
176
Natural selection
Natural selection is the process by which those organisms with genetically controlled characteristics that allow them to be well adapted to their environments will survive to reproduce so that they will be able to pass on their genes to the following generation.
177
Natural vegetative propagation
Natural vegetative propagation involves forming new plants from a stem, root, leaf or bud.
178
Negative tropism
Negative tropism occurs when the growth is away from the stimulus.
179
Neuron (or Neurone)
a neuron (or neurone) is a nerve cell.
180
Nitrification
Nitrification is the conversion of ammonia to ammonium (NH4^+) compounds to nitrate (NO3^-).
181
Node
A node is a point on a stem at which a leaf is attached.
182
Non-endospermic seed
A non-endospermic seed has no sperm when fully formed.
183
Nutrient recycling
Nutrient recycling is the way in which elements (such as carbon and nitrogen) are exchanged between the living and non-living components of an ecosystem.
184
Nutrition
Nutrition is the way organisms obtain and use food.
185
Obligate parasite
An obligate parasite can only take food from a live host.
186
Observation
Observation is when something is noticed.
187
Omnivores
Omnivores are animals that feed on plants and animals (e.g. humans, badgers and hedgehogs).
188
Open circulatory system
An open circulatory system is when blood leaves blood vessels and flows around the cells of the animal's body before re-entering blood vessels again.
189
Optimum pH
Optimum pH is the pH value at which the enzyme works best.
190
Organ
An organ is a structure composed of a number of tissues that work together to carry out one or more functions.
191
Organisation
An organisation are living things which are composed of cells, tissues, organs and organ systems.
192
Organism
An organism is a living thing.
193
Organ system
An organ system is a number of organs working together to carry out one or more functions.
194
Orgasm
An orgasm is the physical and emotional sensations experienced at the peak of sexual excitement.
195
Osmosis
Osmosis is the movement of water molecules across a semi-permeable membrane from a region of high water concentration to a region of low water concentration.
196
Osteoblast
An osteoblast is a bone-forming cell.
197
Osteoclast
An osteoclast is a bone-digesting cell.
198
Ovulation
Ovulation is the release of an egg from an ovary.
199
Parasites
Parasites are organisms that take in food from a live host and usually cause harm.
200
Parasitism
Parasitism is when two organisms of different species live in close association and one organism (the parasite) obtains food from, and to the disadvantage of, the second organism (the host).
201
Passive immunity
Passive immunity occurs when individuals are given antibodies that were formed by another organism.
202
Pathogen
A pathogen is an organism that causes disease.
203
Pathogenic bacteria
Pathogenic bacteria is a bacteria which can cause disease.
204
Pectoral girdle
The pectoral girdle consists of the collarbone (or clavicle) and the shoulder blade (or scapula).
205
Pelvic girdle
The pelvic girdle is composed of the two halves of the hip joined to the sacrum.
206
Percentage cover
The percentage cover is an estimate of the amount of ground in a quadrat study.
207
Peristalsis
Peristalsis is a wave of muscular action in the walls of the alimentary canal that moves the contents along.
208
Pharynx
The Pharynx is the throat.
209
Phospholipids
Phospholipids are fat-like substances in which one of the fatty acids is replaced by a phosphate group or has a phosphate group added to it.
210
Photolysis
Photolysis is the splitting of water by light.
211
Phototropism
Phototropism is the change in the growth of a plant in response to light, usually from one direction (i.e. unidirectional light).
212
Plasma
Plasma is the liquid part of the blood.
213
Plasma B cells
Plasma B cells produce antibodies.
214
Plumule
The plumule is the part of the plant embryo that develops into the shoot.
215
Pollination
Pollination refers to the transfer of pollen from an anther to a stigma of a flower from the same species.
216
Pollutants
Pollutants are harmful additions to the environment.
217
Pollution
Pollution is any harmful addition to the environment.
218
Population
A population is all of the members of the same species which live in a certain area.
219
Portal system
A portal system is a blood pathway which begins and ends in capillaries.
220
Positive tropism
Positive tropism occurs when the growth is towards a stimulus.
221
Predation
Predation is the catching, killing and eating of another organism.
222
Predator
A predator is an organism which catches, kills and eats another organism.
223
Prey
Prey are organisms that are eaten by a predator.
224
Producers
Producers are organisms which carry out photosynthesis.
225
Product
A product is a substance(s) formed by an enzyme.
226
Prokaryotic cells
Prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus or membrane-enclosed organelles.
227
Protoplasm
The protoplasm is all the living parts of the cell.
228
Puberty
Puberty is the beginning of sexual maturity.
229
Pulse
A pulse is the alternate expansion and contraction of the arteries.
230
Pyramid of numbers
The pyramid of numbers represents the numbers of organisms at each tropic level (or stage) in a food chain.
231
Qualitative study
A qualitative study records the presence or absence of organisms.
232
Quantitative study
Quantitative study records the number of organisms that are present.
233
Radicle
The radicle is the part of the plant embryo that develops into a root.
234
Reabsorption
Reabsorption is when molecules pass from the nephron back into the blood.
235
Reflex action
A reflex action is an automatic, involuntary, unthinking, response to a stimulus.
236
Reflex arc
The reflex arc is the pathway taken by the nerve impulse in a reflex action.
237
Refractory period
The refractory period is a short time span after a neuron has carried an impulse during which a stimulus fails to cause a response.
238
Replicate
A replicate is a repeat of an experiment.
239
Reproduction
Reproduction is the production of new individuals.
240
Response
A response is the activity of a cell or organism as a result of a stimulus.
241
Root tuber
A root tuber is a swollen, underground root that remains dormant during winter and from which new plants may grow.
242
Runners
Runners are horizontal stems that run (or grow) above the ground from which new plants grow.
243
Saprophytes
Saprophytes are organisms that take in food from already dead organic matter.
244
Scientific method
The scientific method is a process of investigation in which problems are identified and their suggested explanations are tested by carrying out experiments.
245
Scramble competition
Scramble competition occurs when all of the competing individuals get some of the resources.
246
Secondary sexual characteristics
Secondary sexual characteristics are features that distinguish males and females, apart from the sex organs themselves.
247
Secretion
Secretion occurs when some substances pass from the blood into the nephron.
248
Selectively permeable membrane
A selectively permeable membrane allows some but not all molecules to pass through it.
249
Self-pollination
Self-pollination is the transfer of pollen from an anther to a stigma on the same plant.
250
Semen
Semen is a fluid containing sperm and seminal fluid.
251
Sensory (or Afferent) neuron
The sensory (or afferent) neuron takes a message from a sensory organ to the CNS.
252
Serum
Serum is plasma from which the clotting proteins have been removed.
253
Sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction is the union of two sex cells or gametes.
254
Solar energy
Solar energy is energy from the sun.
255
Specific defence system
The specific defence system attacks particular (or specific) pathogens.
256
Sporulation
Sporulation is the process of making spores.
257
Stamens
Stamens are the male parts of a flower.
258
Sterile
Sterile means that all micro-organisms are destroyed (i.e. there is nothing living).
259
Stimulus
A stimulus is anything that causes a reaction in an organism or any of its parts.
260
Substrate
A substrate is a substance with which an enzyme reacts with.
261
Suppressor T cells
Suppressor T cells inhibit the immune response.
262
Symbiosis
Symbiosis occurs when two different species live (and have to live) in close association and at least one of the species benefits.
263
Synapse
A synapse is a region where two neurons come into close contact.
264
Synaptic cleft
A synaptic cleft is a tiny gap between the two neurons at a synapse.
265
Systole
Systole is when the heart chambers contact.
266
Tendons
Tendons are the strong, flexible, inelastic fibre that connects muscle to bone.
267
Theory
A theory is a hypothesis that has been supported by many different experiments.
268
Thigmotropism
Thigmotropism is a change in the growth of a plant in response to touch.
269
Threshold
A threshold is the minimum stimulus need to cause an impulse to be carried in a neuron.
270
Tissue culture
A tissue culture is the growth of cells in or on a sterile nutrient medium outside an organism.
271
Tissue
A tissue is a group of similar cells that are modified (or adapted) to carry out the same function(s).
272
Transpiration
Transpiration is the loss (by evaporation) of water vapour from the leaves and other and ariel parts of a plant.
273
Trophic level
The trophic level is a feeding stage in a food chain.
274
Tropism
Tropism is a change in the growth of a plant in response to an external stimulus.
275
Turgor (or turgor pressure)
Turgor (or turgor pressure) is the outward pressure of the cytoplasm and vacuole against the cell wall of a plant.
276
Ultrastructure
Ultrastructure is the detail of a structure as seen using an electron microscope.
277
Vaccination
Vaccination is the administration (usually by injection) of a non-disease-causing dose of a pathogen (or its toxin) to stimulate the production of antibodies.
278
Vaccine
A vaccine is a non-disease-causing dose of a pathogen (or its toxin), which triggers the production of antibodies.
279
Valves
Valves control the direct flow of blood.
280
Variable
A variable is a factor that may change in an experiment.
281
Vegetative propagation (or vegetative reproduction)
Vegetative propagation (or vegetative reproduction) is asexual reproduction in plants.
282
Venation
Venation is the pattern of veins in a leaf.
283
Woody plants
Woody plants contain wood (or lignin).
