Cognitive Psychology- LTM: Encoding, Retrieval & Consolidation Flashcards
the process of acquiring information and transferring it into LTM
encoding
bringing information into consciousness by transferring it from LTM to working memory
retrieval
encoding refers to the _______ used to get information into LTM
process
according to levels of processing theory, memory depends on what?
depth of processing
depth of processing distinguishes between what?
shallow and deep processing
Rehearsal that involves repetition without any consideration of meaning or making connections to other information.
maintenance rehearsal
Rehearsal that involves thinking about the meaning of an item to be remembered or making connections between that item and prior knowledge.
elaborative rehearsal
processing that involves close attention and elaborative rehearsal that focuses on an item’s meaning and its relationship to something else.
deep
processing that involves little attention to meaning, as when a phone number is repeated over and over or attention is focused on a word’s physical features such as whether it is printed in lower-case or capital letters
shallow
A question about the physical features of the word. For example, participants see the word bird and are asked whether it is printed in capital letters, is an example of what processing?
shallow
A question about rhyming. For example, participants see the word train and are asked if it rhymes with the word pain, is an example of what processing?
deep
would rhyming or fill in the blanks lead to deeper processing?
fill in the blanks
A fill-in-the-blanks question. For example, participants see the word car and are asked if it fits into the sentence “He saw a _______ on the street.” is an example of what processing?
deep
Gordon Bower and David Winzenz (1970) decided to test whether using _____ ________—generating images in your head to connect words visually—can enhance memory
visual imagery
Gordon Bower and David Winzenz (1970) used a procedure in which a list of word pairs are presented and later, the first word of each pair is presented, and the participant’s task is to remember the word it was paired with. what is this procedure?
paired-associate learning
in their paired associate learning procedure, Bower and Winzenz found that participants who had created ________ remembered more than twice as many words as the participants who had just repeated the word pairs
images
memory is better if you are asked to relate a word to yourself
self reference effect
Memory for material is better when a person generates the material him-or herself, rather than passively receiving it.
generation effect
grouping lists of words in to ________ serve as retrieval cues
categories
word or other stimulus that helps a person remember information stored in memory.
retrieval cue
When practicing, memory retrieval increases elaboration, which increases performance on memory tasks
retrieval practice effect
Enhanced performance on a memory test caused by being tested on the material to be remembered.
testing effect
The enhanced performance due to retrieval practice
testing effect
previously learned information interferes with learning new information
proactive interference
The effect of __________ is illustrated by what might happen when learning French vocabulary words makes it more difficult to learn a list of Spanish words a little later
proactive interference
mechanisms that creates the illusion of learning
- familiarity
- fluency
The principle of ___________ states that we encode information along with its context
encoding specificity
studying for your exam in quiet conditions because the exam will take place under quiet conditions
encoding specificity
learning that is associated with a particular internal state, such as mood or state of awareness.
state dependent learning
the same cognitive tasks are involved during both encoding and retrieval.
transfer appropriate processing
When the type of task that occurs during encoding matches the type of task that occurs during retrieval. This type of processing can result in enhanced memory.
transfer appropriate processing
Participants who did a rhyming-based encoding task did better on the rhyming test than participants who did a meaning-based encoding task is an example of what matching condition?
transfer appropriate processing
the process that transforms new memories from a fragile state, in which they can be disrupted, to a more permanent state, in which they are resistant to disruption.
consolidation
consolidation that takes place over minutes or hours, involves structural changes at synapses.
synaptic
consolidation that takes place over months or even years, involves the gradual reorganization of neural circuits within the brain
systems
One of the outcomes of structural changes at the synapse is a strengthening of synaptic transmission. This strengthening results in a phenomenon where enhanced firing of neurons occur after repeated stimulation
long-term potentiation (LTP)—
According to Hebb, learning and memory are represented in the brain by physiological changes that take place at the _______.
synapse
Researchers who followed Hebb’s lead determined that activity at the synapse causes a sequence of chemical reactions, which result in the synthesis of new proteins that cause structural changes at the ________
synapse
The case of HM, who lost his ability to form new memories after his hippocampus was removed indicates the importance of the hippocampus in what?
forming new memories
Proposes that memory retrieval depends on the hippocampus during consolidation, but that once consolidation is complete, retrieval no longer depends on the hippocampus.
standard model of consolidation
the hippocampus, is involved in encoding new memories, and makes connections with higher cortical areas . However, with the passage of time, connections between the hippocampus and cortical areas weaken, and connections between cortical areas strengthen until, eventually, the HC is no longer involved in those memories
standard model of consolidation
According to this model, the participation of the hippocampus is crucial during
early stages of memory, as it is replaying the neural activity associated with a memory and sending this information to the cortex.
standard model of consolidation
A process that occurs during memory consolidation, in which the hippocampus replays the neural activity associated with a memory. During reactivation, activity occurs in the network connecting the hippocampus and the cortex. This activity results in the formation of connections between the cortical areas.
reactivation
This loss of memory for events that occurred before the injury, called ________ amnesia, can extend back minutes, hours, or even years, depending on the nature of the injury.
retrograde amnesia,
a characteristic of retrograde amnesia on which the amnesia tends to be most severe for events that happened just before the injury and to become less severe for earlier events
graded amnesia
model that proposes that early in consolidation, the hippocampus communicates with cortical areas. However, in this model the hippocampus remains in active communication with the cortical areas, even for remote memories
multiple trace model
Bonnici found that (1) more information about remote memories compared to recent memories was contained in the __________, and (2) information about both recent and remote memories was represented throughout the hippocampus, with the posterior hippocampus containing more information about ________ memories
- prefrontal cortex
- remote
the reason sleep shortly after learning enhance memory is because it eliminates ________
distraction
the idea that when a memory is retrieved (remembered), it becomes fragile, like it was when it was originally formed, and that when it is in this fragile state, it needs to be consolidated again
reconsolidation
when the memory has become fragile again, and before it has been reconsolidated, it can be _______ or ________.
modified or eliminated
according to __________, retrieving a memory not only puts us in touch with something that happened in the past, but it also opens the door for either modifying or forgetting the original memory
reconsolidation
just as the original memory is fragile until it is _______ for the first time, a reactivated memory becomes fragile until it is __________.
- consolidated
- reconsolidated
This idea that memories can be changed, has led to practical applications designed to treat conditions such as
PTSD
The evidence from Almut Hupbach’s experiment with the reminder and no-reminder groups showed that _________ memories in humans can become vulnerable to change, leading to the integration of new information from List B into the originally recalled List A.
reactivated
Two explanations have been proposed to explain the results of Hupbach’s experiments in which human memories were reactivated. One explanation involves __________, the other involves considering the _______ in which learning takes place.
- reconsolidation
- context
The ___________ model focuses on the context within which learning and retrieval occur and assumes that old contexts can become associated with new memories, without changing the content of existing memories
temporal context
When cued with the old context, both the existing and the new memory will be recalled. Thus, the _________ explanation proposes that what is stored about the old memory has changed, whereas the ________ explanation proposes that considering storage is unnecessary because Hupbach’s result can be explained by contextual associations.
- reconsolidation
- temporal context
what is the key difference between synaptic consolidation and systems consolidation?
- content
- scale
- state
- consciousness
scale
Hebs idea of long term potentiation, which provides a physiological mechanism for the long term storage of memories, includes the idea of what?
- an increase in the size of cell bodies of neurons
- increased firing in the neurons
- larger electrical impulses
- the growth of new dendrites
- increased firing in the neurons
Bradford and Johnsons study had participants hear a passage, which turned out to be about a man on a street serenading his girlfriend in a tall building. the wording of the passage made it difficult to understand, but looking at a picture made it easier to understand. the results of this study illustrate the importance of _________ in formulating reliable long term memories
a) implicit memory
b) organisational context
c) reconsolidation
d) imagery
organisational context
