Cognitive Psychology - Conceptual Knowledge Flashcards
According to this approach to categorization, we can decide whether something is a member of a category by determining whether a particular object meets the definition of the category.
definitional approach
Wittgenstein proposed the idea of ___________ to deal with the problem that definitions often do not include all members of a category.
family resemblance
the idea that things in a particular category resemble one another in a number of ways
family resemblance
the idea that we decide whether something is a member of a category by determining whether it is similar to a standard representation of a category
prototype approach to categorization
a standard used in categorisation that is formed by averaging the category members a person has encountered in the past
prototype
Rosch describes these variations within categories as representing differences in _______.
typicality
a category member closely resembles the category prototype
high typicality
the category member does not closely resemble a typical member of the category
low typicality
the ability to judge highly prototypical objects more rapidly i
typicality effect
Presentation of one stimulus affects responses to a stimulus that follows. - results showing faster same–different color judgments for high-prototypical items (Rosch, 1975b) illustrates what effect?
priming
results showing that faster reaction time to statements like “A _______ is a bird” for high-prototypical items (like robin) than for low-prototypical items (like ostrich) (Smith et al., 1974). illustrates what effect?
typicality
Things in a category resemble each other in a number of way, where results showing higher ratings for high-prototypical items when people rate how “good” a member of the category it is (Rosch, 1975a). illustrated what effect?
family resemblance
approach proposing that determining whether an object is similar to other objects where the standard approach involves many examples
exemplar approach to categorization
actual members of the category that a person has encountered in the past.
exemplars
kind of organization, in which larger, more general categories are divided into smaller, more specific categories, creating a number of levels of categories
hierarchical organization
Rosch’s approach is a hierarchical approach, what are the three levels of categories she distinguished?
- superordinate level
- basic level
- subordinate level
the subordinate level is also called what?
specific level
Furniture would be categorised where according to Rosch’s hierarchical approach?
superordinate (global)
Chair would be categorised where according to Rosch’s hierarchical approach?
basic
truck would be categorised where according to Rosch’s hierarchical approach?
basic
Ford would be categorised where according to Rosch’s hierarchical approach?
subordinate (specific)
the superordinate level is also called what?
global level
Rosch proposed that the _______ level is psychologically special
basic
an approach to understanding how concepts are organised in the mind that proposes that concepts are arranged in networks
semantic network approach
semantic network approach consists of _____ that are connected by links
nodes
each node in the semantic network approach represents what?
category or concept
a feature of semantic networks in which properties of a category are stored at a higher level node in the network, for example, the property “can fly” would be stored at the node for “bird” not at the node for “canary”
cognitive economy
a property of semantic networks in which activity that spreads out along any link that is connected to an activated node
spreading activation
a network approach based on neural networks
connectionist network
a network model of mental operation that proposes that concepts are represented in networks that are modelled after neural networks
connectionism
feature of a connectionist network that determines how signals sent from one unit either increase or decrease the activity of the next unit.
connection weight
in a connectionist network, ______ are inspired by neurons found in the brain
units
Units in a connectionist network that are located between input units and output units.
hidden units
Units in a connectionist network that are activated by stimulation from the environment
input units
Units in a connectionist network that contain the final output of the network
output units
the connection weight in a connectionist network correspond to what?
what happens at the synapse
Activation of units in a network therefore depends on two things: (1) the ______ that originates in the input units and (2) the ________ throughout the network.
- signal
- connection weights
During learning in a connectionist network, the difference between the output signal generated by a particular stimulus and the output that actually represents that stimulus
error signal
A process by which learning can occur in a connectionist network, in which an error signal is transmitted backward through the network. This backward-transmitted error signal provides the information needed to adjust the weights in the network to achieve the correct output signal for a stimulus.
back propogation
The backward-transmitted error signal provides the information needed to ________ the weights in the network to achieve the correct output signal for a stimulus.
adjust
Disruption of performance due to damage to a system that occurs only gradually as parts of the system are damaged. This occurs in some cases of brain damage and also when parts of a connectionist network are damaged
graceful degradation
Because information in the network is distributed across many units, damage to the system does not completely disrupt its operation.
graceful degradation
an impairment in which they had lost the ability to identify one type of object but retained the ability to identify other types of objects
category-specific memory impairment
The observation that living things are distinguished by sensory properties
and artifacts by functions led to the _________ hypothesis, which states that our ability to differentiate living things and artifacts depends on a memory system that distinguishes sensory attributes and a system that distinguishes functions.
sensory functional
patients with _______ ______ memory impairment are able to identify non animals (artifacts) as well as fruits and vegetables, but had impaired ability to identify animals
category-specific
To explain why this selective impairment occurred in category-specific memory impairment Warrington and Shallice considered properties that people use to distinguish between artifacts and living things. They noted that distinguishing living things depends on perceiving their ________ features and Artifacts, in contrast, are more likely to be distinguished by their ________
- sensory
- functions
The idea of distributed representation is a central feature of the __________ approach, which has led to searching for factors beyond sensory and functional that determine how concepts are divided within a category.
multiple-factor approach
The ______ approach proposes that there are specific neural circuits in the brain for some specific categories.
semantic category
The _______ approach states that our knowledge of concepts is based on reactivation of sensory and motor processes that occur when we interact with the object.
embodied
Animals tend to share many properties, such as eyes, legs, and the ability to move. This is relevant to the multiple-factor approach to the representation of concepts in the brain.
crowding
according to this approach, when a person uses a hammer, sensory areas are activated in response to the hammer’s size, shape, and color, and, in addition, motor areas are activated that are involved in carrying out actions involved in using a hammer
embodied approach
this approach focuses on areas of the brain that are specialized to respond to specific types of stimuli, it also emphasizes that the brain’s response to items from a particular category is distributed over a number of different cortical areas
semantic category
Correspondence between words related to specific parts of the body and the location of brain activity associated with that part of the body
semantic somatotopy
areas of the cortex are activated by the actual movements and by reading the actual words - eg. leg words and leg movements elicit activity near the brain’s centerline, whereas arm words and finger movements elicit activity farther from the centerline is an example of what?
semantic somatotopy
The _______ approach emphasizes the role of many differ-ent features and properties.
multiple-factor
The ________ approach emphasizes specialized areas of the brain and networks connecting these areas
category-specific
the _______ emphasizes activity caused by the sensory and motor properties of objects
embodied approach
_________ causes a general loss of knowledge for all concepts. Patients with semantic dementia tend to be equally deficient in identifying living things and artifacts
semantic dementia
The generalized nature of the deficits experienced by semantic dementia patients, along with the finding that the anterior temporal lobe (ATL) is generally damaged in these patients, has led some researchers to propose the_________ of semantic knowledge
hub and spoke model
According to this model, areas of the brain that are associated with specific functions are connected to the ATL, which serves as a hub that integrates the information from these areas
hub and spoke model
damage to one of the specialized brain areas (the spokes) can cause ______ deficits, such as an inability to identify artifacts, but damage to the ATL (the hub) causes _______ deficits, as in semantic dementia
- specific
- general
results from Hoffman and Lambon Ralph study indicate that animals were more highly associated with motion and color compared to artifacts, and artifacts were more highly associated with performed actions (actions associated with using or interacting with an object). are explained by what approach to how concepts are represented in the brain?
multiple-factor approach
