Cognitive Psychology - Judgements, Decisions and Reasoning Flashcards
reasoning that involves syllogisms in which a conclusion logically follows from premises
deductive reasoning
Reasoning in which a conclusion follows from a consideration of evidence. This conclusion is stated as being probably true rather than definitely true
inductive reasoning
Quality of a syllogism whose conclusion follows logically from its premises.
validity
A series of three statements: two premises followed by a conclusion. The conclusion can follow from the premises based on the rules of logic
syllogism
A syllogism in which the premises and conclusion describe the relationship between two categories by using statements that begin with All, No, or Some.
categorical syllogism
A syllogism is _______ when it makes accurate claims – that is, when the information it contains is consistent with the facts.
true
______ is about whether the conclusion logically follows from the premises based on the form or structure of the syllogism
validity
All of the students are tired. (All A are B)
Some tired people are irritable. (Some C are D)
Some of the students are irritable. (Some A are D)
is this Syllogism valid and/or true?
can be true
not valid
if one or two ________ are not true, the conclusion may not be true, even thought the syllogisms reasoning is valid
premises
reasoning that moves from the general to the specific
deductive reasoning
reasoning that moves from the specific to the general
inductive reasoning
In the past, eating peanuts did not cause me to have an allergic reaction.
Therefore, in the future, I will not have an allergic reaction to peanuts.
what reasoning is this?
inductive
the tendency to think a syllogism is valid if its conclusion is believable or that it is invalid if the conclusion is not believable.
belief bias
conclusions reached are probably true, but not definitely true, because the conclusions drawn are based on generalizations from specific observations that are not always representative of the broader principle or population.
inductive reasoning
A specific situation that is represented in a person’s mind to help determine the validity of syllogisms in deductive reasoning.
mental model
In deductive reasoning, determining if syllogisms are valid by creating mental models of situations based on the premises of the syllogism
mental model approach
if both of the premises are true and the syllogism is valid, then the conclusion is ______
true
syllogisms have two premises and a conclusion and the first premise has the form “If … then.”
conditional syllogism
If I study, I’ll get a good grade.
I got a good grade.
Therefore, I studied.
is this syllogism valid?
not valid
if i live in Melton, then i live in Melbourne
I don’t live in melton
therefore, i don’t live in melbourne
is this syllogism Valid?
No
if i live in melton, then i live in Melbourne
I live in Melbourne
therefore, i live in melton
is this syllogism valid?
No
All of the students live in Melton,
Some students who live in melton are Millionaires
Some of the students are millionaires
is this syllogism valid?
No
If i study, ill get a good grade
I studied
therefore i got a good grade
is this syllogism valid?
yes
if i study, i’ll get a good grade
i got a good grade
therefore, i studied
is this syllogism valid?
no
a classic reasoning problem used to study the mechanisms that determine the outcome of conditional reasoning tasks and deductive reasoning
wason four card problem
The reasoning principle that to test a rule, it is necessary to look for situations that would falsify the rule.
falsification principle
Cheng and Holyoak, suggested that an explanation for why people find the Wason four card problem easier when it involves regulation people is that people think in terms of ________—their knowledge about rules that govern their thoughts and actions
schemas
one schema to explain the wason four card problem being easier when states in real-life terms is the __________ schema
permission
A pragmatic reasoning schema that states that if a person satisfies condition A, then they get to carry out action B. this schema has been used to explain the results of the Wason four-card problem
permission schema
what are two explanations for why people understand syllogisms like the Wason task when they are stated in real world situations?
- permission
- cheaters
an approach to decision making which assumed that people are basically rational
expected utility theory
According to expected utility theory, if people have all of the relevant information, they will make a decision that results in the maximum expected utility, where ______ refers to outcomes that achieve a person’s goals
utility
One of the advantages of this approach is that it specifies procedures that make it possible to determine which choice would result in the highest monetary value.
expected utility theory
One of the most powerful effects of emotion on decision making involves emotions that people predict they will feel for a particular outcome.
expected emotions
Expected emotions are one of the determinants of _______—the tendency
to avoid taking risks.
risk aversion
One of the things that increases the chance of risk _______ is the tendency to predict that a particular loss will have a greater impact than a gain of the same size
aversion
emotions that are not caused by having to make a decision
incidental emotions
emotions that can be related to a person’s general disposition (the person is naturally happy, for example), something that happened earlier in the day, or the general environment such as background music being played in a game show or the cheers of the game show audience.
incidental emotions
being faced with a more difficult decision can lead to making what?
no decision at all
Procedure in which a person must take an active step to choose a course of action—for example, choosing to be an organ donor
opt-in procedure
Procedure in which a person must take an active step to avoid a course of action—for example, choosing not to be an organ donor.
opt-out procedure
Tendency to do nothing when faced with making a decision.
status quo bias
Sticking with your current cable/satellite provider, even though another provider might offer more channels at a cheaper price, you are already familiar with the rates, choices, and customer service offered by your current provider
status quo bias
A decision-making strategy that is governed by the idea of avoiding risk. Often used when a problem is stated in terms of gains.
risk aversion strategy
A decision-making strategy that is governed by the idea of taking risks. Often used when a problem is stated in terms of losses
risk taking strategy
decisions are influenced by how the choices are stated,
framing effect
when a choice is framed in terms of gains, people use what strategy?
risk aversion
when a choice is framed in terms of losses, which strategy will people use?
risk taking
Imagine that the United States is preparing for the outbreak of an unusual disease that is expected to kill 600 people
If Program A is adopted, 200 people will be saved.
If Program B is adopted, there is a one-third probability that 600 people will be saved, and a two-thirds probability that no people will be saved.
those who choose Program A are taking what strategy?
risk aversion
Imagine that the United States is preparing for the outbreak of an unusual disease that is expected to kill 600 people
If Program C is adopted, 400 people will die.
If Program D is adopted, there is a one-third probability that nobody will die, and a two-thirds probability that 600 people will die.
if 78% of people choose program D which strategy are they taking?
risk taking
A new approach to studying decision making, called ___________, combines research from the fields of psychology, neuroscience, and economics to study how brain activation is related to decisions that involve potential gains or losses
neuroeconomics
outcomes of neuroeconomics approach has been research that has identified areas of the brain that are activated as people make decisions while playing economic games.This research shows that decisions are often influenced by _______, which are associated with activity in specific areas of the brain.
emotions
a game that involves two players, one designated as the proposer and the other as the responder. The proposer is given a sum of money, say $10, and makes an offer to the responder as to how this money should be split between them. If the responder accepts the offer, then the money is split according to the proposal. If the responder rejects the offer, neither player receives anything. Either way, the game is over after the responder makes his or her decision.
ultimatum game
According to _______ theory, the responder should always accept the proposer’s offer as long as it’s greater than zero in the ultimatum game
utility
in the ultimatum game, the right anterior insula was activated about three times more strongly when responders ______ an offer than when they ________ it
- rejected
- accepted
Sanfey suggests that the function of the PFC in the ultimatum game may be to deal with the cognitive ________ of the task, which involves weighing the choices to determine which decision is best.
demands
without a functioning PFC, unfair offers are more likely to be _______.
accepted
the insula is particularly active when participants viewed excessively priced items, and this activation predicted decisions ______ purchase.
not to
the idea that there are two mental systems—a fast, automatic, intuitive system, and a slower, more deliberative, thoughtful system
dual systems approach
in the dual systems approach, system 1 is what mental system?
- fast, automatic and intuitive
in the dual systems approach, system 2 is what mental system?
- slow, deliberate and thoughtful
which system is linked to the belief bias and heuristics?
System 1
quickly evaluate evidence that we see in the news; we see a story that just “makes sense,” as in the case of the malformed daisies produced by the nuclear disaster , which system is this?
system 1
which system is this?
perceive things in the environment, react to a loud noise, read emotions in someone’s face, or negotiate a curve while driving
system 1
which system is this?
entering a construction zone or passing a large truck at 70 miles an hour
system 2
