chapter 6 textbook Flashcards
learning
“ relatively enduring change in behavior resulting from experience. Learning occurs when an animal benefits from experience so that it is better adapted to its environment and more prepared to deal with it in the future”
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three types of learning
nonassociative
associative
social
social learning
“involves acquiring behaviors and predictive associations between stimuli or events through interactions with others.
”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“The sound of a dentist’s drill makes you nervous. What type of learning produced your fear”
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associative learning
Habituation
“leads to a decrease in a behavioral response after repeated exposure to a stimulus. ”
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“The increase in a response because of a change in something familiar is ”
dishabituation
“ much of what psychologists have learned about nonassociative learning has come from studying simple invertebrates such as
“Aplysia, a type of marine snail”
“Habituation can be demonstrated quite easily by touching the animal repeatedly, which initially causes it to withdraw its gills. After about 10 touches, it stops responding, and this lack of response lasts about 2 to 3 hours. Repeated habituation trials can lead to a state of habituation that lasts several weeks.”
.
Sensitization
“leads to an increase in a behavioural response after exposure to a stimulus.”
“The stimuli that most often lead to sensitization are those that are
meaningful to the animal
“What is the primary difference between habituation and sensitization?”
“Habituation decreases a behavioral response, whereas sensitization increases a behavioral response.
”
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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“classical conditioning, also known as
Pavlovian conditioning
“Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, was interested in
salivary reflex
neutral stimulus
“unrelated to the salivary reflex, such as the clicking of a metronome, is presented along with a stimulus that reliably produces the reflex, such as food. The neutral stimulus can be anything that the animal can see or hear as long as it is not something that is usually associated with being fed”
conditioning trial
the pairing of a neutral stimulus
unconditioned response
it is unlearned
(salvation by food)
unconditioned stimulus
the food - without training, the food leads to salivation (UR)
conditioned stimulus
“the stimulus that elicits a learned reaction”
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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“However, the CR and the UR are not always identical:
The CR usually is weaker than the UR. In other words, the metronome sound produces less saliva than the food does
“What is the difference between a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus?”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“An unconditioned stimulus elicits an involuntary (unconditioned) response without learning. A conditioned stimulus comes to elicit an involuntary (conditioned) response by being associated with the unconditioned stimulus.”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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Acquisition
“is the formation of an association between a conditioned stimulus (here, a metronome) and an unconditioned stimulus ”
extinction
“The conditioned response is extinguished when the conditioned stimulus no longer predicts the unconditioned stimulus ”
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through _____ ____ the extinguished CS again produces a CR
spontaneous recovery
“The fact that spontaneous recovery occurs tells us”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“that extinction replaces the associative bond but does not eliminate that bond. Extinction is a form of new learning that overwrites the previous association: The animal learns that the original association no longer holds true”
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“What leads to the extinction of a conditioned response?”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“Answer: repeated presentations of the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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mental processes that underlie conditioning (2)
“ (1) Classical conditioning is a way that animals come to predict the occurrence of events, and
(2) the strength or likelihood of a CR is determined by how accurately the CS predicts the US. ”
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“The Rescorla-Wagner model states ”
“ that an animal learns to expect that some predictors (potential CSs) are better than others”
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“according to the Rescorla-Wagner model, whether a conditioned association is acquired, maintained, strengthened, or extinguished is determined by”
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“the extent to which a US, or its absence, is unexpected or surprising. Learning theorists refer to the difference between the expected and actual outcomes as prediction error.”
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prediction error is considered a positive prediction error happens when
something unexpected happens or to a further extent
negative prediction weakens the
CS-US association
Rescorla-Wagner model
“A cognitive model of classical conditioning; it holds that learning is determined by the extent to which an unconditioned stimulus is unexpected or surprising.”
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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“What produces a prediction error?”
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“Answer: a difference between the expected outcome and the actual one, strengthening or weakening the CS-US association
”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“ Stimulus generalization occurs when
“ Stimulus generalization occurs when stimuli similar but not identical to the CS produce the CR (FIGURE 6.11a). Generalization is adaptive because in nature the CS is seldom experienced repeatedly in an identical way”
.
“Stimulus discrimination occurs whenn
“an animal learns to differentiate between two similar stimuli if one is consistently associated with the US and the other is not”
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second-order condition
micheal jordan example
“Through classical conditioning Michael Jordan (the CS) came to evoke positive feelings (the CR) because of his athletic achievements (the US). Once he acquired these qualities, Air Jordans (the new CS) also became popular (the CR) because they were paired with Michael Jordan (the old CS).
”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“Which learning process helps you react differently toward flying insects that sting than toward those that do not sting while hiking in the woods?”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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stimulus discrimination
“Operant conditioning requires a
“Operant conditioning requires a voluntary action to be performed and has a consequence.
”
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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“In operant conditioning, behaviors represent a way to”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“In operant conditioning, behaviors represent a way to attain something (a reward) or avoid something (a punishment). They are instrumental—done for a purpose (FIGURE 6.13). This type of learning is sometimes called instrumental conditioning, but we will refer to it here as operant conditioning.”
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“operant to express the idea that ”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“operant to express the idea that animals operate on their environments to produce effects”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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law of effect was done with the experiment of
“Thorndike used puzzle boxes, such as the one depicted here, (b) to assess learning in animals.”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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cat in puzzle box
strugglle for 5-10 mintutes
- accidentally open with lever string
- when returned to the box, it would open a bit more quickly, a bit quicker ever time
what is the law of effect
“ any behavior that leads to a “satisfying state of affairs” is likely to occur again. Any behavior that leads to an “annoying state of affairs” is less likely to occur again. In other words, the frequency with which a behavior occurs is influenced by its consequences.”
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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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reinforcement
“an observable event that produces an observable learned response”
behaviourism- made by Watson was a school that emphasized
“environmental effects on observable behaviors”
reinforcer
“A reinforcer is a stimulus that occurs after a response and increases the likelihood that the response will be repeated.”
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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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operant chamber (Skinner box)
“he could expose rats or pigeons to repeated conditioning trials without having to do anything but observe”
“Skinner later built mechanical recording devices that allowed the experimenter to conduct trials without being present. Today’s operant chambers interface with computers to enable researchers to record behavioral data”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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Reinforcement always
increases behaviour
“ Positive reinforcement is often called a reward. Positive simply means”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“that something is being added, not whether the reinforcement is good. ”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“ negative reinforcement increases behavior through”
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“ negative reinforcement increases behavior through”
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“Punishment reduces the probability that a behavior will”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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recur
“ Positive punishment decreases the behavior’s probability through”
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“the administration of a stimulus ”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“Research has shown that for punishment to be effective, it must be”
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“Research has shown that for punishment to be effective, it must be reasonable, unpleasant, and applied immediately so that the relationship between the unwanted behavior and the punishment is clear”
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which is more effective reinforcement or punishment
reinforcement because the message in punishment can be confusing. for example child telling the truth get punished teaching them to lie
“Punishing the child for bad behavior does not tell the child how to ”
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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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improve
most ineffective form of punishment
punishment
key difference between classical and operant conditioning is that in operant conditioning”
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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“the animal must perform an action that can then be reinforced.”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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if the animal does not naturally perform the task
“, you cannot reinforce it. ”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“One major problem with operant conditioning outside the Skinner box is
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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“ that the same animal might take a while to perform the action you are looking for.”
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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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SECONDARY REINFORCERS
“Stimuli that serve as reinforcers but do not satisfy biological needs are called secondary reinforcers. These reinforcers are established through classical conditioning, as described earlier in this chapter: We learn to associate a neutral stimulus, such as money (CS), with rewards such as food, security, and power (US”
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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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shaping
“Shaping, an operant-conditioning technique, consists of reinforcing behaviors that are increasingly similar to the desired behavior. This technique can be used to train animals to perform extraordinary behaviors. Here, a trained dog water-skis for a boat show.”
primary reinforcers.
“The most obvious stimuli that act as reinforcers are those necessary for survival, such as food or water. Because they satisfy biological needs”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“In terms of learning, what is the main cause of superstitious behavior?”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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receiving chance reinforcement
“ reinforcers are more valuable to the animal than others, and the ________of a reinforcer in operant conditioning is a function of its value”
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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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effectiveness
“how could a reinforcer’s value could be determined”
(premark principle)
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“ The key is the amount of time a person, when free to do anything, willingly engages in a specific behavior associated with the reinforcer. ”
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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“One great advantage of Premack’s theory is that it ”
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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“One great advantage of Premack’s theory is that it can account for differences in individuals’ values.”
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premack principle
“ a more-valued activity can be used to reinforce the performance of a less-valued activity. Parents use the Premack principle all the time. They tell their children, “Eat your spinach and then you’ll get dessert,” “Finish your homework and then you can go out,”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“Another factor that predicts the effectiveness of operant conditioning is the”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“Another factor that predicts the effectiveness of operant conditioning is the”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“The longer the delay between the action and its consequence, the worse the”
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learning
“. Temporal discounting is when
“Temporal discounting is when the value of a reward diminishes over time. For instance, suppose I offered you a choice between $10 now or $20 a year from now.”“In other words, the value of money is diminished if the reinforcement is delayed. Temporal discounting plays an important role in efforts to achieve long-term goals.”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“Why might delaying positive reinforcement be less effective?
”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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Answer: temporal discounting
“Gambling is a form of”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“Gambling is a form of operant conditioning in that the patron learns the actions required to obtain a potential reward”
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“For fast learning, it is best to reinforce a behavior each time it occurs. This process is known as”
continuous reinforcement.
“In the real world, behavior is seldom reinforced continuously. People do not receive praise each time they behave acceptably. ” what is more common, what us the type of reinforcement
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“People do not receive praise each time they behave acceptably. The intermittent reinforcement of behavior is more common. This process is known as partial reinforcement.”
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“Partial reinforcement’s effect on conditioning depends on”
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“Partial reinforcement’s effect on conditioning depends on”
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“A ratio schedule is based on the ”
number of times the behavior occurs, as when a behavior is reinforced on every third or tenth occurrence. ”
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“ four most common reinforcement schedules:”
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“fixed interval, variable interval, fixed ratio, and variable ratio (FIGURE 6.21).”
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“ interval schedule is based on”
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“specific unit of time, as when a behavior is reinforced when it is performed every minute or hour”
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“A fixed interval (FI) schedule occurs when”
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“A fixed interval (FI) schedule occurs when reinforcement is provided after a certain amount of time has passed. Imagine that you feed your cat twice a day.”
monte knowing his feeeding schedule
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“A variable interval (VI) schedule occurs when”
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“A variable interval (VI) schedule occurs when reinforcement is provided after the passage of time, but the time is not regular. Although you know you will eventually be reinforced, you cannot predict when it will happen. For example, getting texts from friends occurs on a variable interval schedul”
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“A fixed ratio (FR) schedule occurs when”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“reinforcement is provided after a certain number of responses have been made. Factory workers who are paid based on the number of objects they make are a good example of the FR schedule. ”
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“A variable ratio (VR) schedule occurs when ”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“A variable ratio (VR) schedule occurs when reinforcement is provided after an unpredictable number of responses. Games of chance provide an excellent example of a VR schedule. At a casino, you might drop a lot of money into a slot machine that rarely rewards you with a win.”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“continuous reinforcement leads to fast learning, but the behaviors ….
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do not last
“ partial-reinforcement extinction effect”
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“ refers to the greater persistence of behavior under partial reinforcement than under continuous reinforcement. During continuous reinforcement, the learner can easily detect when reinforcement has stopped. But when the behavior is reinforced only some of the time, the learner needs to repeat the behavior comparatively more times to detect the absence of reinforcement”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“less frequent and more variable the reinforcement during training, the _____ the resistance to extinction.”
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greater
“What type of partial reinforcement produces the most persistent responses?”
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variable ratio schedule
“if the schedule is predictable it is
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fixed
“If the schedule is not predictable, it is ”
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variable
“f the schedule depends on the passage of time, it is”
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interval
“If the schedule depends on the number of responses, it is”
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ratio
