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PSYC 200 > ch 8 > Flashcards

ch 8 Flashcards

1
Q

“Cognitive psychology was originally based on two ideas about thinking:”

Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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A

“(1) Knowledge about the world is stored in the brain in representations, and (2) thinking is the mental manipulation of these representations. In other words, we use representations to understand objects we encounter in our environments”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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2
Q

“Thinking allows us to”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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A

“Thinking allows us to take information, consider it, and use it to build models of the world, set goals, and plan our actions accordingly.”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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3
Q

“In thinking, we use two basic types of mental representations:”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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A

“ analogical and symbolic. Together, these two types of representations form the basis of human thought and intelligence and the ability to solve the complex problems of everyday life.”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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4
Q

An analogy

A

“ompares two things that are similar in some way”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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5
Q

“analogical representations have some characteristics of what they represent. These representations are usually”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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A

images

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6
Q

“Symbolic representations, such as the word violin, are”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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A

“bstract and do not have relationships to the physical qualities of objects.”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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7
Q

“ symbolic representations are abstract. These representations are usually words, numbers, or ideas. They do not have relationships to”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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A

“physical qualities of objects in the world. For example, the word violin stands for a musical instrument (FIGURE 8.1b). There are no correspondences between what a violin looks like, what it sounds like, and the letters or sounds that make up the word violin. In Chinese, the word for violin is”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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8
Q

“Mental maps rely on”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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A

“Mental maps rely on both analogical and symbolic representations. For example, most of us can pull up a visual image of Africa’s contours even if we have never seen the actual contours with our own eyes. But to understand the difference between these two types of mental representations, consider the following question about two U.S. cities: Which is farther east: San Diego, California, or Reno, Nevada?”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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9
Q

“Grouping things based on shared properties is called”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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A

categorization“This mental activity reduces the amount of knowledge we must hold in memory and is, therefore, an efficient way of thinking”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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10
Q

“A concept is a”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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A

“category, or class, of related items (such as musical instruments or fruits). A concept consists of mental representations of those items. By enabling us to organize mental representations around a common theme, a concept ensures that we do not have to store every instance of an object individually.”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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11
Q

prototype model,

A

“hen you think about a category, you tend to look for a best example, or prototype, for that category. Once you have the prototype, you categorize new objects based on how similar they are to the prototype. In this model, each member of a category varies in how much it matches the prototype”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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12
Q

exemplar model

A

“ exemplar model proposes that any concept has no single best representation (Medin & Schaffer, 1978). Instead, all the examples, or exemplars, of category members that you have encountered form the concept.”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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13
Q

“The exemplar model assumes that, through experience, people form ”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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A

“The exemplar model assumes that, through experience, people form a fuzzy representation of a concept because there is no single representation of any concept.”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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14
Q

“you are learning how to identify edible mushrooms. To make your judgment, you compare all fungi in the environment to the portabella mushrooms in the grocery store. Are you using a prototype or exemplar model of concept development?

”

Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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A

“Answer: You are using a prototype model because you are categorizing fungi as edible or not based on a comparison to your “best example” of portabella mushrooms.

”

Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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15
Q

“ A script is a”

Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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A

“schema that directs behavior over time within a situation.”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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16
Q

“However, sometimes schemas, like prototypes, have unintended consequences,”

Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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A

“such as reinforcing sexist or racist beliefs or other stereotypes. For example, when children and teens are asked to draw a scientist, very few draw women as scientists, because they unconsciously associate being a scientist with being male”

Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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17
Q

“If schemas and scripts are potentially problematic, why do they persist?”

Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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A

“Their adaptive value is that, because they usually work well, these shortcuts minimize the amount of attention required to navigate familiar environments. They also enable us to recognize and avoid unusual or dangerous situations. Mental representations in all forms assist us in using and understanding information about objects and events.

”

Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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18
Q

“In decision making, we select”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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A

“among alternatives. Usually, we identify important criteria and determine how well each alternative satisfies these criteria.”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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19
Q

“In problem solving, we ”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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A

“In problem solving, we overcome obstacles to move from a present state to a desired goal state.”
“In general, you have a problem when a barrier or a gap exists between where you are and where you want to be”

Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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20
Q

“n the 1970s, the researchers Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky (1979) shattered many intuitions and theories about how people make decisions by focusing”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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A

“less on what people should do and more on what they actually do.”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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21
Q

“Through their research, Kahneman and Tversky helped us understand that people are”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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A

“far from calm and rational thinkers. Rather, decision makers are biased, use irrelevant criteria, and can be unduly influenced by their emotions.”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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22
Q

heuristics,

A

“ heuristics, these shortcuts in thinking are fast and efficient strategies that people typically use to make decisions.”
“Heuristic thinking often occurs unconsciously: We are not aware of taking these mental shortcuts.”

Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
This material may be protected by copyright.
Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
This material may be protected by copyright.

23
Q

“Heuristic thinking can be adaptive because under some circumstances it is beneficial to make ”

Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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A

“Heuristic thinking can be adaptive because under some circumstances it is beneficial to make quick decisions rather than weigh all the evidence before deciding.”

Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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24
Q

“heuristics can result in”

Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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A

“iases, and these biases may lead to errors, faulty decisions, erroneous beliefs, and false predictions”

Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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25
Q

confirmation bias,

A

“onfirmation bias, focusing only on information that supported their views.”

Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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26
Q

“ In addition, when events turned out contrary to their predictions, many people created after-the-fact explanations. This error in reasoning is known as”

Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
This material may be protected by copyright.

A

hindsight bias

27
Q

“An anchor serves as a reference point in decision making. Anchoring occurs when”

Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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A

“in making judgments, people rely on the first piece of information they encounter or on information that comes most quickly to mind”

Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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28
Q

“After making an initial judgment based on an anchor, ”

Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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A

“After making an initial judgment based on an anchor, people compare subsequent information to that anchor and adjust away from the anchor until they reach a point where the information seems reasonable”

Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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29
Q

“ Framing a choice by emphasizing the potential loss or potential gain can”

Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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A

“lead to different decisions.”

Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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30
Q

“They are generally much more concerned with costs than with benefits, an emphasis known as”

Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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A

loss aversion

31
Q

availability heuristic

A

“is the general tendency to make a decision based on the answer that comes most easily to mind. In other words, when we think about events or make decisions, we tend to rely on information that is easy to retrieve.”

Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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32
Q

representativeness heuristic

A

“s the tendency to place a person or an object in a category if the person or object is similar to our prototype for that category. We use this heuristic when we base a decision on the extent to which each option reflects what we already believe about a situation.”

Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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33
Q

“But the representativeness heuristic can lead to faulty thinking if we”

Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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A

“fail to take other information into account. One very important bit of information is the base rate.”

Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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34
Q

base rate

A

“This term refers to how frequently an event occurs. People pay insufficient attention to base rates in reasoning. Instead, they focus on whether the information presented is representative of one conclusion or another. For example, there are many more postal workers than cognitive psychologists, so the base rate for postal workers is higher than that for cognitive psychologists. Therefore, any given person, including Helena, is much more likely to be a postal worker. Although Helena’s traits may be more representative of cognitive psychologists overall, they also likely apply to a large number of postal workers.

”

Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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35
Q

“Why might someone be more inclined to buy an item with an expensive regular price that is on sale than a similar item at a reasonable and equivalent regular price?

”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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A

“Answer: The expensive price serves as an anchor for what a price should be for the item, so the sale price may seem more attractive than the equivalent regular price for an item that was never overpriced.

”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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36
Q

intelligence

A

“ intelligence is the ability to use knowledge to reason, make decisions, make sense of events, solve problems, understand complex ideas, learn quickly, and adapt to environmental challenges.”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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37
Q

“The psychometric approach to measuring intelligence”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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A

“focuses on how people perform on standardized tests that assess mental abilities. These tests examine what people know and how they solve problems”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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38
Q

“There are two main types of standardized tests. ”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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A

“Achievement tests assess people’s current levels of skill and of knowledge. Aptitude tests seek to predict what tasks, and perhaps even what jobs, people will be good at in the future.”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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39
Q

alfred binet

A

“ He proposed that intelligence is best understood as a collection of high-level mental processe”
“Binet launched the psychometric approach to assessing intelligence.

”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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40
Q

“ewis Terman, at Stanford University, modified the Binet-Simon test and ”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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A

“stablished normative scores for American children (average scores for each age). This test—the Stanford Revision of the Binet-Simon Scale, known colloquially as the Stanford-Binet—remains the most widely used test for children in the United States. In 2003, it was revised for the fifth time.
”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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41
Q

“David Wechsler developed an intelligence test for adults.”

Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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A
42
Q

why David Wechsler disproved Stanford-Binet test

A

“t unsuitable for adults, but Wechsler was dissatisfied with various features of that scale, including its reliance on verbal information and its assessment of intelligence by a single score”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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43
Q

“Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)—the most current version being the WAIS-IV, released in 2008—has two parts”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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A

“ Each part consists of several tasks that provide separate scores. The verbal part measures aspects such as comprehension (“Why do people buy home insurance?”), vocabulary (“What does corrupt mean?”), and general knowledge (“What day of the year is Independence Day in the United States?”). It also includes tests of working memory, such as short-term memory capacity. The performance part involves nonverbal tasks—such as arranging pictures in proper order, assembling parts to make a whole object, and identifying a picture’s missing features—and measures of reaction time”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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44
Q

WAIS

A

“The performance part of intelligence tests includes nonverbal tasks. Here are some examples similar to items used in the WAIS III. (a) Picture arrangement: These pictures tell a story. Put them in the right order to tell the story. (b) Object assembly: If these pieces are put together correctly, they make something. Put them together as fast as you can. (c) Digit-symbol substitution: Using the code provided, fill in the missing information in the test picture.”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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45
Q

“Binet introduced the important concept of”

Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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A

mental age

46
Q

“The intelligence quotient (IQ), developed by the psychologist Wilhelm Stern, is partly based on mental age. IQ is computed by ”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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A

“dividing a child’s estimated mental age by the child’s chronological age and multiplying the result by 100. To calculate the IQ of the 10-year-old with a mental age of 13, we calculate 13/10 × 100. The result is 130, a very high score.
”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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47
Q

“The formula breaks down when used with adults, however, so the IQs of adults are measured differently. According to the standard formula, a 60-year-old would need to get twice as many test items correct as a 30-year-old to have the same IQ”

Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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A

true

48
Q

“ IQ in the adult range is measured in comparison with the”

Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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A

“average adult and not with adults at different ages.”

Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
This material may be protected by copyright.“average adult and not with adults at different ages.”

Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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49
Q

“Across large groups of people, the distribution of IQ scores forms a bell curve, or”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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A

normal distribution

50
Q

“The average, or mean, for most IQ tests is 100, and the standard deviation i”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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A

15

51
Q

“To evaluate the validity of tests, we need to consider what it means to be intelligent. If the word means doing well at school or at a complex career, intelligence tests perform reasonably well: The overall evidence indicates that IQ is a fairly good predictor of such life outcomes ”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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A
52
Q

“To explore the validity of intelligence tests, researchers analyzed data from 127 studies, in which more than 20,000 participants took the”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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A

Miller Analogy Test

53
Q
A

PSYC 200 (19 decks)

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