ch 8 slide deck

Question 1

analogical representations

Answer 1

pictures

Question 2

symbolic representations

Answer 2

describing what happened

Question 3

writing path

Answer 3

reality, analogical representation, symbolic representations

Question 4

reading path

Answer 4

symbolic representations, analogical, reality

Question 5

Problem solving

Answer 5

– Finding a way around an obstacle to reach a goal.
– Building an analogical representation of a problem is the first step to
effectively solve the problem

Question 6

Decision making

Answer 6

A cognitive process that results in the selection of a course of action
or belief from several options

Question 7

The Buddhist monk problem
One morning a Buddhist monk sets out at sunrise to climb a path up
the mountain to reach the temple at the summit. He arrives at the
temple just before sunset. A few days later, he leaves the temple at
sunrise to descend the mountain, traveling somewhat faster since it is
downhill. Is there a spot along the path that the monk will occupy at
precisely the same time of day on both trips?
* How do you construct an analogical representation of this
problem?
unproductive representation?

Answer 7

• Thinking in terms of distance &
  speed
• Trying to locate that spot as if
  solving a math or physics
  problem—it is not this
  complicated

Question 8

The Buddhist monk problem
One morning a Buddhist monk sets out at sunrise to climb a path up
the mountain to reach the temple at the summit. He arrives at the
temple just before sunset. A few days later, he leaves the temple at
sunrise to descend the mountain, traveling somewhat faster since it is
downhill. Is there a spot along the path that the monk will occupy at
precisely the same time of day on both trips?
* How do you construct an analogical representation of this
problem?
productive representation??

Answer 8

Productive Representation
* Visualize the path of the monk
ascending and descending the
mountain.
* The paths start at opposite ends
and proceed in opposite direction.
* Think of two monks walking in
opposite directions along the same
path on the same day.

Question 9

Chi, Feltovich, & Glaser (1981) background

Answer 9

– The quality of problem representation influences the ease with which
the problem can be solved.
– Experts possess domain specific knowledge (or problem schemata)
with which solutions to the problems are easily arrived.
– “…much of expert power lies in the expert’s ability to quickly
establish correspondence between externally presented events and
internal models for these events” (p. 123)
– Experts represent problem by category (i.e., perceptual chunking)

Question 10

Chi, Feltovich, & Glaser (1981), purpose?

Answer 10

To investigate the qualitative differences between the
representations of physics problems by experts and novices.
* To understand the role of categorization in expert problem
solving.

Question 11

Chi, Feltovich, & Glaser (1981) results?

Answer 11

• Novices sorted the problems based on surface structures : the
  objects (e.g., inclined plane) referred to in the problems, the
  literal physics terms mentioned in the problems (e.g., friction),
  the physical configuration described in the problems (e.g., a
  block on an inclined plane).
• Experts sorted the problems based on deep structures: physics
  principles governing the solutions of the problems (e.g.,
  Newton’s second law, conservation of energy)

Question 12

Chi, Feltovich, & Glaser (1981). experts were ___ in sorting the problem

Answer 12

slower
- Experts spent more time analyzing the problems; they tried to
understand the problems before solving the problems

Question 13

Chi, Feltovich, & Glaser. expertise is only an advantage in ……

Answer 13

Expertise is only an advantage in the expert’s specialty (recall that
the chess master was not better than the novice in memorizing
random chess positions)
Question to think about:
* What might be a disadvantage of being an expert?

Question 14

we are more capable of thinking in ____ ways than ___ ways

Answer 14

concrete than abstract

Question 15

we tend to search for evidence that …..

Answer 15

confirms our decisions, beliefs, and hyptheses

Question 16

we are often overly influenced by _____ _____ _____ stored in our memories when making judgements

Answer 16

general world knowledge

Question 17

Our world knowledge sometimes has prevented us from seeing

Answer 17

he pure logic; and sometimes has enabled us to see it.

Question 18

Deductive reasoning is a type of reasoning which

Answer 18

begins with
some specific premises that are assumed to be true. Based on
the premises, a conclusion is drawn.

Question 19

A conclusion is valid if

Answer 19

it follows the principles of logic

Question 20

Deductive reasoning involves determining whether the
conclusion is

Answer 20

valid

Question 21

two major types of deductive reasoning:

Answer 21

– Syllogism
– Conditional reasoning (also called propositioning reasoning)

Question 22

Syllogism

Answer 22

• A three-statement logical form.
• The first two parts state the premises or statements taken to
  be true.
• The third part states a conclusion based on those premises.

Question 23

Syllogism abstract vs concrete form

Answer 23

abstract- all A are B, all B are C, therefore all A are C
concrete: all poddles are dogs, all dogs are animals, therefore all poodles are animals

Question 24

A valid conclusion does not always have

Answer 24

empirical truth

Question 25

When doing research, if one of the initial assumptions is wrong,

Answer 25

the whole conclusion does not have empirical truth (we are wrong from the beginning)

Question 26

An invalid syllogism is one that

Answer 26

the first two premises are true (or assumed to be true), but the conclusion is false (or is not always true)

Question 27

venn diagram stuff

Question 28

Conditional reasoning involves a

Answer 28

a logical determination of a conclusion (or no conclusion) if one part of the if/then statement is assumed to be true or not true

Question 29

Conditional Reasoning: If P then Q Two parts:

Answer 29

1) A conditional clause - If P (the antecedent), then Q (the consequent) 2) Evidence - P is true (P) - P is not true (not P) - Q is true (Q) - Q is not true (not Q)

Question 30

Modus ponens

Answer 30

Affirming the antecedent

Question 31

Modus tollens

Answer 31

Denying the consequent

Question 32

People are good at inferring the truth of the consequent given evidence that the antecedent is

Answer 32

true

Question 33

Performance was excellent (100% in one study) for the case of modus ponens when the problems were presented in

Answer 33

either concrete or abstract

Question 34

Rate of making correct inferences for the case of modus tollens ranged from ____ to ____ when the problems were stated in an abstract form

Answer 34

57% to 77%

Question 35

modus tollen presented in the form of everyday experience, on average _____ people could make a correct conclusion

Answer 35

87.5%

Question 36

The Wason cards are created with the following rules:

Answer 36

A card with a vowel on it will have an even number on the other side. Which card or cards would you turn over to obtain conclusive evidence about the rule (i.e., to find out whether the rule is followed)

Question 37

Conditional: If a card has a vowel on one side, then it has an even number on the other. evidence??

Answer 37

E (vowel): Affirming the antecedent (modus ponens) K (not vowel): Denying the antecedent 4 (even): Affirming the consequence 7 (not even): Denying the consequence (modus tollens)

Question 38

(wason cards problem) Only the modus ponens and modus tollens will yield conclusive evidence about

Answer 38

the validity of the rule * Therefore, the cards to be turned over are E and 7.

Question 39

Empirical results of the Wason Selection Task

Answer 39

33% of Wason’s subjects turned over only the E card. * Only 4% of subjects turned over both the E & 7 cards. * 46% of subjects turned over both the E & 4 cards. * Generally, subjects tended to search for positive evidence— evidence that affirms the antecedent and the consequent. * This is the confirmation bias (discussed later): People would rather try to confirm or support a hypothesis than try to disprove/falsify it.

Question 40

How well do people apply conditional reasoning to solve an everyday problem?

Answer 40

Empirical finding: People checked both the modus ponens and modus tollens when the problem to be solved is presented in a concrete form (in this case, people might not be aware that they are actually solving a conditional reasoning problem).

Question 41

When we become skeptical, we are

Answer 41

sensitive to negative evidence

Question 42

Two Types of Errors Relating to Conditional Reasoning

Answer 42

form errors and search errors

Question 43

form erroes

Answer 43

Form Errors - People assume that: If P, then Q = If Q, then P - The right equation should be: If P, then Q = If not Q, then not P

Question 44

search errors

Answer 44

People tend to search for positive evidence only (unless they become skeptical, then they will pay attention to negative evidence). - The tendency to search for information that supports a conclusion (or a belief) is called a confirmation bias. - People tend to ignore the rules of logics when they are occupied with a confirmation bias

Question 45

Dual-process theory: Distinguish between two types of cognitive processing:

Answer 45

Type I processing – Fast & automatic – Requires little conscious attention – E.g., stereotyping, use of heuristics (discussed later) * Type II processing – Slow and controlled – Requires focused attention – E.g., think of exceptions to a general rule

Question 46

inductive reasoning

Answer 46

uses specific examples to make a general rule

Question 47

deductive reasoning

Answer 47

takes a general rule and uses it to make a more specific example

Question 48

Heuristic is a

Answer 48

a “rule of thumb” that provides a best-guess solution to a problem.

Question 49

The representativeness heuristic is a judgment rule in which an estimate of the probability or likelihood of an event is determined by one of two features:

Answer 49

1) how similar the event is to the population of events it came from or 2) whether the event seems similar to the process that produced it (e.g., random process should produce random patterns of results)

Question 50

representativeness heuristic

Answer 50

Placing a person or an object in a category if that person or object is similar to one’s prototype for that category.

Question 51

Representativeness Heuristic

Answer 51

* In the coin toss example, the population of events are those with a combination of H and T. * The result HHTHTT has alterations between heads and tails and thus it resembles the population of random events. * The result HHHHHH is an odd combination, the chance of getting this unique result is 1/64. * In fact, the combination of HHTHTT is equally unique and the chance of getting it is also 1/64.

Question 52

The gambler’s fallacy

Answer 52

If a fair coin toss comes up heads five times in a row, what would you bet on the next toss? heads or tails? * H H H H H ? * Most gamblers would believe that the next toss would be tails. * This is called the gambler’s fallacy. Gamblers mistakenly believe that the five previous tosses have bearing on the 6th one. * HHHHHH is harder to get than HHHHHT. * HHHHHT has greater resemblance to the population of events that are the results of a random process. * In fact, the result of the 6th toss is independent of the results of the previous tosses.

Question 53

people usually ignore the

Answer 53

base rates of events.

Question 54

A guess based on stereotype has a better chance of being right than a

Answer 54

blind guess

Question 55

Availability Heuristic

Answer 55

* Availability means ease of retrieval. * The availability heuristic holds that when people have to make estimates of likelihood or frequency, their estimates are influenced by the ease with which relevant examples can be remembered.

Question 56

Availability Heuristic Example 1: How reliable is a Japanese car?

Answer 56

* In this case, you are asked to estimate the frequency of repair required by a Japanese car. * Suppose you have a friend who has a Toyota that needs to be repaired frequently. * If your major source of knowledge about Japanese cars is your friend’s Toyota, you tend to think that Japanese cars are unreliable. * Your bias against Japanese cars comes from a readily retrieved example of your friend’s car.

Question 57

The more frequently people are exposed to a stimulus, the more

Answer 57

easily the stimulus is retrieved from memory.

Question 58

Confirmation bias is

Answer 58

the tendency to search for, interpret, and recall information in a way that confirms one’s belief or hypothesis, while giving disproportionately less consideration to alternative possibilities.

Question 59

Experiment demonstrating confirmation bias in making diagnosis (dangerous!

Answer 59

* Medical students and psychiatrists read a case about a 65-year- old-man. * They gave a preliminary diagnosis of either Alzheimer’s disease or severe depression. * Each person then decided what kind of additional information they would like. * 25% of medical students and 13% of psychiatrists selected only the information that was consistent with their original diagnosis

Question 60

The availability heuristic is used to estimate frequency based on available examples. * This estimation is affected by:

Answer 60

– Recency of events – Familiarity with the events – Salience (vivideness) of the events * Oftentimes, the estimation is accurate.

Question 61

Comparing the representativeness & availability heuristics

Answer 61

Representativeness heuristic – Given a specific example (e.g., the profile of an individual), judge the likelihood that the example is a membership of a general category (e.g., the individual is a feminist activist). – The judgement is based on the degree of similarity between the specific case and the general category. * Availability heuristic – Given a general category (e.g., air crash), judge the frequency of occurrence of this general category. – The judgement is based on the ease of coming up with a specific example.

Question 62

Anchoring Bias

Answer 62

The tendency to rely on the first piece of information encountered to make a judgment or decision. * An anchor serves as a reference point.

Question 63

Framing Effect

Answer 63

what do you want to highlight

Question 64

Intelligence is

Answer 64

the ability to use knowledge to reason, make decisions, make sense of events, solve problems, understand complex ideas, learn quickly, and adapt to environmental challenges.

Question 65

What is the operational definition of intelligence?

Answer 65

“intelligence is what an intelligence test measures.” * What do intelligence tests measure then? * The majority of intelligence tests measure the skills that are required to do well in academic work. E.g., abstract reasoning & verbal fluency. * The purpose of an intelligence test is to predict academic success.

Question 66

n 1905, Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon in France published a scale (called the ___ ___ ____) that could be used to

Answer 66

Binet-Simon scale identify children that needed special training in school

Question 67

Binet-Simon scale was a success because it was capable of predicting

Answer 67

children’s academic performance. - This scale measured a child’s mental age

Question 68

n 1916, Lewis Terman and his colleagues at Stanford University published the

Answer 68

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale

Question 69

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale.

Answer 69

The test itself was very close to the original Binet-Simon scale. * The major difference was in the scoring of the test. * The test result was expressed as an intelligence quotient (IQ): * 𝐼𝑄 = 𝑀𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑔𝑒/ 𝐶ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑔𝑒 ∗ 100

Question 70

intelligence quotient (IQ) The ratio makes it possible to

Answer 70

compare the intellectual abilities of children of different ages because the ratio places all children (regardless of age) on the same scale.

Question 71

WAIS

Answer 71

Structure of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale - The first IQ test for adults was published in 1939 by David Wechsler

Question 72

Compared to the Stanford-Binet test, WAIS incorporated two major innovations:

Answer 72

1) Less dependent on verbal IQ – It has separate scores for verbal IQ, performance (non-verbal) IQ, and full- scale(total) IQ. 2) Has a new scoring scheme – Scoring is based on the normal distribution and standard deviation. – The mean of the distribution is set at 100, and the standard deviation is 15

Question 73

scoreing of WAIS and normal distribution

Answer 73

The normal distribution of intelligence If your IQ score = 115, it means: * Your IQ is one standard deviation higher than the average of the adult population. * Your IQ is higher than 84% of people * You are labelled as high average

Question 74

Reliability =

Answer 74

consistency of measurement

Question 75

Do intelligence tests have adequate reliability?

Answer 75

A reliable test yields similar scores upon repetition. * Reliability is computed as a correlation coefficient. * IQ tests usually have a correlation coefficient in the 0.90s

Question 76

Validity =

Answer 76

the ability to measure what it was designed to measure

Question 77

Do intelligence tests have adequate validity?

Answer 77

Intelligence tests can predict school performance fairly well. * In this sense, intelligence tests have high validity (they measure what they are meant to measure). * The correlations between IQ scores and school grades typically range from 0.40 to 0.50. One study with a big sample size reported a correlation of 0.70.

Question 78

Why do the correlations between IQ scores and school grades are not in the ranges of 80s and 90s?

Answer 78

School grades are affected by other factors, not just intellectual abilities. For example: – Motivation – Diligence – Personality – Conscientiousness – Self control/regulation – Social life/support – Relationship

Question 79

The causal link between IQ and years of schooling is

Answer 79

bidirectional - Those people with higher IQ tend to stay longer in school. – People who stay longer in school will develop better intellectual abilities, of course

Question 80

Do intelligence tests predict vocational success?

Answer 80

The correlation between IQ and occupational attainment is 0.37 (averaging across many studies). * People who score high on IQ tests are more likely than those who score low to end up in high-status jobs. * The correlation between IQ and income is 0.21 (averaging across many studies) * The correlation between IQ and job performance is 0.50, (or actually in the 0.30s before statistical corrections). * As a whole, the correlation between IQ and vocational success is moderate. Hiring decisions should not be made based on IQ testing alone.

Question 81

emotional intelligence is a good predictor of

Answer 81

quality of social relationship school grades workplace performance

Question 82

Emotional intelligence consists of four abilities

Answer 82

* Managing one’s emotions * Using one’s own emotions to guide thoughts and actions * Recognizing other people’s emotions * Understanding emotional language

Question 83

Definition of giftedness:

Answer 83

Exceptional high ability with respect to intellect, creativity, or the skills associated with specific disciplines.

Question 84

Operational definition of giftedness

Answer 84

Two or more standard deviations above the mean on a standardized, individually administered test of cognitive abilities

Question 85

Gifted children may demonstrate outstanding abilities in more than one area. * However,

Answer 85

they may also have disabilities in other areas.

Question 86

Paradoxical Negative Effects of Giftedness

Answer 86

* Gifted students are able to handle the general education curriculum with ease—putting in minimum effort while still earning high grades. * The long-term effect of being able to excel without working hard is a lack of work habits. * Their “developmentally advanced” status is lost in the long run without hard work.