chapter 5 textbook

Question 1

Sensation

Answer 1

“ detection of physical stimuli and transmission of that information to the brain. Physical stimuli can be light or sound waves, molecules of food or odor, or temperature and pressure changes. Sensation is the basic experience of those stimuli. It involves no interpretation of what we are experiencing.”

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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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Question 2

perception

Answer 2

“the brain’s further processing, organization, and interpretation of sensory information. Perception results in our conscious experience of the world. Whereas the essence of sensation is detection, the essence of perception is the construction of useful and meaningful information about a particular sensation”

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Question 3

Bottom-up processing

Answer 3

“based on the physical features of the stimulus. As each sensory aspect of a stimulus is processed, the aspects build up into perception of that stimulus”

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Question 4

Top-down processing

Answer 4

“how knowledge, expectations, or past experiences shape the interpretation of sensory information. That is, context affects perception: What we expect to see (higher level) influences what we perceive (lower level). We are unlikely to see a blue, apple-shaped object as a real apple because we know from past experience that apples are not blue.”

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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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Question 5

TRANSDUCTION

Answer 5

“Our sensory systems translate the physical properties of stimuli into patterns of neural impulses. The different features of the physical environment are coded by activity in different neurons”

“The translation of stimuli is called transduction. This process involves specialized cells in the sense organs called sensory receptors. The sensory receptors receive stimulation—physical stimulation in the case of vision, hearing, and touch and chemical stimulation in the case of taste and smell.”

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Question 6

qualitative information

Answer 6

“ualitative information consists of the most basic qualities of a stimulus. For example, it is the difference between a tuba’s honk and a flute’s toot. It is the difference between a salty taste and a sweet one”

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Question 7

Quantitative information

Answer 7

“consists of the degree, or magnitude, of those qualities: the loudness of the honk, the softness of the toot, the relative saltiness or sweetness.

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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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Question 8

Psychophysics,

Answer 8

“ examines our psychological experiences of physical stimuli. For example, how much physical energy is required for our sense organs to detect a stimulus? How much change is required before we notice that change”

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Question 9

absolute threshold

Answer 9

“minimum intensity of stimulation that must occur before you experience a sensation. In other words, it is the stimulus intensity you would detect 50 percent of the time”

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Question 10

difference threshold

Answer 10

“the smallest difference between two stimuli that you can notice. ”

noticeable difference
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Question 11

SIGNAL DETECTION THEORY- before beliefs

Answer 11

“ classical psychophysics, sensory thresholds were unambiguous. Either you detected something or you did not, depending on whether the intensity of the stimulus was above or below a particular level. As research progressed, it became clear that early psychophysicists had ignored the fact that people are bombarded by competing stimuli, including the “noise” produced by both internal stimuli (moods, emotions, memory, physical states such as arousal or nausea) and other external stimuli (such as an air conditioner’s sound, a cold wind, a cluttered room). The competing internal and external sources affect judgment and attention.”

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Question 12

webers law

Answer 12

the theory that the just noticeable difference between two stimuli is based on a proportion of the original stimulus rather than on a fixed amount of difference
“That is, the more intense the stimulus, the bigger the change needed for you to notice.”

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Question 13

single detection theory

Answer 13

“detecting a stimulus is not an objective process. Detecting a stimulus is instead a subjective decision with two components: (1) sensitivity to the stimulus in the presence of noise and (2) the criteria used to make the judgment from ambiguous information (Green & Swets, 1966).”

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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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Question 14

how research on signal detection works

Answer 14

“. In each trial, participants must state whether they sensed the stimulus. A trial of this kind, in which a participant judges whether an event occurs, can have one of four outcomes. If the signal is presented and the participant detects it, the outcome is a hit. If the participant fails to detect the signal, the outcome is a miss. If the participant reports there was a signal that was not presented, the outcome is a false alarm. If the signal is not presented and the participant does not detect it, the outcome is a correct rejection”

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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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Question 15

Sensory adaptation

Answer 15

“ decrease in sensitivity to a constant level of stimulation.
”

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Question 16

“While waiting for a friend, you mistakenly wave to someone who looks like your friend but is not. In signal detection terms, what type of outcome is this?”

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Answer 16

“Answer: It is a false alarm because you detected a signal that was not really present.”

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Question 17

SYNESTHESIA

Answer 17

“SYNESTHESIA Even though signals from multiple senses can influence perception, most of us can still distinguish the input from the different senses

Question 18

“ Bill, who hates driving because the sight of road signs tastes like a mixture of pistachio ice cream and earwax (McNeil, 2006). This sort of experience—such as when a visual image has a taste—is called _______

.

Answer 18

synesthesia

Question 19

what does synthesia demonstrate

Answer 19

“there is not a perfect correspondence between the physical world and our experience of ”

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Question 20

synesthesia experiment

Answer 20

“ Ramachandran examined brain scans taken of people with synesthesia when they looked at black numbers on a white background. He found evidence of neural activity in the brain area responsible for color vision. Control participants without synesthesia show evidence for activity in this brain area when they looked at the same numbers. ”

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Question 21

according to “James Enns notes in his book The Thinking Eye, the Seeing Brain (2005) very little of what we see takes place in the eyes ….

Answer 21

“. Rather, what we see results from constructive processes that occur throughout much of the brain to produce our visual experiences. In fact, even if one’s eyes are completely functional, damage to the visual cortex will impair vision.”

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Question 22

how is the human eye like a crude camera

Answer 22

focuses light to form an image - the cornea focuses light to enter the lens, there it is further focused to form an image on the retina

Question 23

The retina contains

Answer 23

“sensory receptors that transduce light into neural signals”

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Question 24

where is more light focused cornea or lens

Answer 24

cornea

Question 25

“Behind the iris, muscles change the shape of the lens. They flatten it to focus on distant objects and thicken it to focus on closer objects. ” THIS IS CALLED _____

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Answer 25

accommodation

Question 26

presbyopia

Answer 26

“As people get older, the lens hardens and it becomes more difficult to focus on close images”

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Question 27

rods are responsible for

Answer 27

“ Rods respond at extremely low levels of light and are responsible primarily for night vision. They do not support color vision, and they are poor at fine detail.”

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Question 28

“Near the retina’s center, cones are densely packed in a small region called the

Answer 28

fovea

Question 29

“rods are concentrated at the retina’s

Answer 29

edges

Question 30

“The visual process begins with the generation of electrical signals by the sensory receptors in the retina. These receptors contain ______ and how do they work

Answer 30

“contain photopigments, protein molecules that become unstable and split apart when exposed to light”

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Question 31

how do rods and cones differ from other neurons

Answer 31

do not fire acion potential
“ Instead, decomposition of the photopigments alters the membrane potential of the photoreceptors and triggers action potentials in downstream neurons. Immediately after light is transduced by the rods and cones, other cells in the middle layer of the retina perform a series of sophisticated computations. The outputs from these cells converge on the retinal ganglion cells. Ganglion cells are the first neurons in the visual pathway with axons. During the process of seeing, they are the first neurons to generate action potentials.”

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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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Question 32

what cells are the first neurons in the visual pathway with axons

Answer 32

“Ganglion cells are the first neurons in the visual pathway with axons.”

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Question 33

“The ganglion cells send their signals along their axons from inside the eye to the

Answer 33

thalamus

Question 34

optic nerve

Answer 34

axon gathered in a bundle

Question 35

““The point at which the optic nerve exits the retina has no rods or cones, producing

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Answer 35

a blind spot

Question 36

where do “half of the axons in the optic nerves cross. (The axons that cross are the ones that start from the portion of the retina nearest the nose.)”

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Answer 36

optic chiasm

Question 37

after reaching the visual area of the thalamus then what

Answer 37

“travels to the primary visual cortex, cortical areas in the occipital lobes at the back of the head. The pathway from the retina to this region carries all the information that we consciously experience as seeing.”

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Question 38

ventral stream

Answer 38

“ projects from the occipital lobe to the temporal lobe and appears to be specialized for the perception and recognition of objects, such as determining their colors and shapes.
WHAT

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Question 39

dorsal stream

Answer 39

projects the optical lobe to the parietal lobe and seems to be specialized for spatial perception “determining where an object is and relating it to other objects in a scene.”
WHERE

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Question 40

“damaged her visual system, particularly in regions involved in the “what” pathway. D.F. was no longer able to recognize the faces of her friends and family members, common objects, or even drawings of squares or circles. She could recognize people by their voices”
WHICH STREAM WAS DAMAGED
WHAT CONDITION
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Answer 40

ventral
object agnosia
“if she was asked to draw an apple, she could do so from memory, but when shown a drawing of an apple, she could not identify or reproduce it.”

Question 41

TRICHROMATIC THEORY

Answer 41

“color vision results from activity in three types of cones that are sensitive to different wavelengths. One type of cone is most sensitive to short wavelengths (blue–violet light), another type is most sensitive to medium wavelengths (yellow–green light), and the third type is most sensitive to long wavelengths (red–orange light;”

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Question 42

two types of colour blindness

Answer 42

“ople may be missing the photopigment sensitive to either medium or long wavelengths, resulting in red-green color blindness (FIGURE 5.15). Alternatively, they may be missing the short-wavelength photopigment, resulting in blue-yellow color blindness. These genetic disorders occur in about 8 percent of males but less than 1 percent of females.

Question 43

OPPONENT-PROCESS THEORY

Answer 43

“ red and green are opponent colors, as are blue and yellow. When we stare at a red image for some time, we see a green afterimage when we look away; when we stare at a green image, we see a red afterimage. In the former case, the receptors for red become fatigued when you stare at red. The green receptors are not fatigued and therefore the afterimage appears green”

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Question 44

how does the opponent process theory describe the second stage of visual processing

Answer 44

“While the trichromatic theory characterizes the properties of different types of cones, the opponent-process theory describes the second stage in visual processing. This stage occurs in the ganglion cells—the cells that make up the optic nerve, which carries information to the brain. Different combinations of cones converge on the ganglion cells in the retina. One type of ganglion cell receives excitatory input from L cones (the ones that respond to long wavelengths, which are seen as red) but is inhibited by M cones (medium wavelengths, which are seen as green). Cells of this type create the perception that red and green are opponents. Another type of ganglion cell is excited by input from S cones (short wavelengths, which are seen as blue) but is inhibited by both L-and M-cone activity (long and medium wavelengths, which when combined are perceived as yellow). These different types of ganglion cells, working in opposing pairs, create the perception that blue and yellow are opponents.”

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Question 45

hue

Answer 45

“ distinctive characteristics that place a particular color in the spectrum—the color’s greenness or orangeness”

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Question 46

saturation

Answer 46

“purity of the color. Saturation varies according to the mixture of wavelengths in a stimulus. Basic colors of the spectrum (e.g., blue, green, red) have only one wavelength, whereas pastels (e.g., baby blue, emerald green, and pink) have a mixture of many wavelengths, so they are less pure”

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Question 47

lightness

Answer 47

“color’s perceived intensity. This characteristic is determined chiefly by the total amount of light reaching the eye. How light something seems also depends on the background, however, since the same color may be perceived differently depending on whether you are looking at it against a bright or dark backgroun”

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Question 48

“Are afterimages best explained by trichromatic theory or opponent-process theory? How so?”

Answer 48

“Answer: Opponent-process theory best explains afterimages. According to this theory, staring at one color causes receptor fatigue. Looking elsewhere then leads unfatigued receptors for the “opposing” color to produce an afterimage.”

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Question 49

FIGURE AND GROUND

Answer 49

“ In order to simplify the visual world, we automatically divide visual scenes into objects and background. Determining that a collection of lines, shapes, and colors composes one figure or object in turn changes how we perceive those visual cues moving forward”

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Question 50

“GESTALT PRINCIPLES OF PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION theorizes …
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Answer 50

“perception is more than the result of a collection of sensory data; in other words, the whole of perceptual experience is more than the sum of its parts. ”

“Gestalt perceptual grouping laws help explain how we group together some visual cues to perceive objects”

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Question 51

gestalt principle of proximity

Answer 51

“Proximity: The closer two figures are to each other, the more likely we are to group them and see them as part of the same object.”

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Question 52

what gestalt principle is
- “We tend to group figures according to how closely they resemble each other, whether in shape, color, or orientation.

”

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Answer 52

similarity

Question 53

Good continuation gestalt

Answer 53

“We tend to group together edges or contours that are smooth and continuous as opposed to those having abrupt or sharp edges.”

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Question 54

which gestalt
law follows “We tend to complete figures that have gaps. The principles of good continuation and closure sometimes can result in seeing contours, shapes, and cues to depth when they do not exist, as is the case with illusory contours”

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Answer 54

closure

Question 55

common fate gestalt law

Answer 55

“We tend to see things that move together as belonging to the same group. For example, you would have no difficulty seeing the Dalmatian in the scene presented in Figure 5.20 if the subset of black dots that represent the Dalmatian all began moving in the same direction.”

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Question 56

object constancy

Answer 56

“Once we perceive a collection of sensory information as belonging to the same object, object constancy leads us to perceive the object as unchanging despite changes in sensory data that compose the object.”

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Question 57

“For the most part, changing an object’s angle, distance, or illumination does not change our perception of that object’s size, shape, color, or lightness”
true or false

Answer 57

true

Question 58

to percieve any of the four constancies we need to under the relationship between

Answer 58

the object and at least one other factor

Question 59

size constancy, we need to know

Answer 59

how “far away the object is from us”

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Question 60

FACE PERCEPTION- why is it special

Answer 60

“ Several studies support the idea that human faces reveal “special” information that is not available from other stimuli. For example, we can more readily discern information about a person’s mood, attentiveness, sex, race, age, and so on by looking at that person’s face than we can by listening to the person talk, watching the person walk, or studying their clothing”

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Question 61

“Some people have particular deficits in the ability to recognize faces—a condition known as”- does not affect the ability to recognize other objects

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Answer 61

prosopagnosia

Question 62

prosopagnosia can occur from damaging what streams in the brain

Answer 62

ventral