ch 7 Flashcards
1
Q
H.M condition
A
had seizures in the temporal lobe - doctors thought if they could remove the part that occurred in his brain wh, he would stop having seizures. they removed parts of his medial temporal lobes, including the hippocampus
2
Q
results of HM surgery
A
seizures stopped but he was unable to remember new information for more than a few seconds.
“H.M. never remembered the day of the week, what year it was, or his own age. Still, he could talk about his childhood, explain the rules of baseball, and describe members of his family, things he knew at the time of the surgery. In other words, his ability to remember details from his life prior to surgery was relatively intact. According to the psychologists who tested him, his IQ was slightly above average”
3
Q
what condition did HM suffer from after the sugery
A
amnesia
“an inability to retrieve vast quantities of information from memory as a result of brain injury or psychological trauma. There are two basic types of amnesia: retrograde and anterograde.” he had anterograde
.
4
Q
retrograde amnesia
A
“ people lose past memories for events, facts, people, or even personal information. Most portrayals of amnesia in the movies and on television are of retrograde amnesia, as when characters in soap operas awaken from comas and do not know who they are”
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5
Q
anterograde amnesia
A
“which is more common in real life, people lose the ability to form new memories ”
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6
Q
what ability showed that he was still able to remember things for short periods? (HM)
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A
being able to hold a convo
- “But H.M. would lose the thread of a conversation if it extended beyond a few minutes.”
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7
Q
“Every day is alone in itself.” who said this
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A
HM
8
Q
“Because of his profound memory loss, he remembered little. But somehow, he knew that he remembered nothing. How could this have been the case?”
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A
9
Q
“n one series of tests, he was asked to trace the outline of a star while watching his hand in a mirror. Most people do poorly the first few times they try this difficult task.”
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A
“On each of three consecutive days, H.M. was asked to trace the star 10 times. His performance improved over the three days, and this result indicated that he had retained some information about the task. On each day, however, H.M. could not recall ever having performed the task before (Milner, 1962). His ability to learn new motor skills enabled him to get a job at a factory, where he mounted cigarette lighters in cardboard cases. But his condition left him unable to describe the job or the workplace.
”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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10
Q
“Another example of H.M.’s intact memory abilities was demonstrated with—-
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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A
priming “the facilitation of a response to a stimulus based on past experience with that stimulus or a related stimulus.”
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11
Q
HM and priming
A
“H.M. was shown a list of words. Later he could not remember having seen the list. However, when presented with words so quickly that they were hard to read, H.M. was more likely to identify words that had been on the list.”
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12
Q
“DIFFERENT BRAIN REGIONS SUPPORT”
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A
DIFFERENT MEMORY SYSTEMS
13
Q
“, the temporal lobes are important for being able to”
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A
“say you remember what happened, but they are less important for memories expressed by motor skills or after priming. ”
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14
Q
“Although memory involves multiple regions of the brain, ”
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A
“Although memory involves multiple regions of the brain, not all brain regions are equally involved in all types of memories”
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15
Q
“The most basic distinction is a division of memories based on how they are expressed.”
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A
“On the one hand are memories we express without conscious effort or intention—memories we do not know we know; on the other hand are memories of which we are consciously aware”
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16
Q
“ Peter Graf and Daniel Schacter (1985) refer to unconscious or unintentional memory as”
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A
implicit memory
17
Q
explicit memory
A
“explicit memory includes the processes we use to remember”
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18
Q
“The brain systems that mediate these associative, implicit memories vary depending on the nature of the association, but they include the”
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A
“basal ganglia and amygdala as well as the cerebellum”
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19
Q
Procedural memories
A
“include skilled and goal-oriented behaviors that become automatic, such as motor skills, cognitive skills, and habitual behaviors. Procedural memories are reflected in knowing how to do something.”
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20
Q
“Procedural memories are very resistant to”
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A
decay
21
Q
“Priming can be perceptual, in which a”
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A
“Priming can be perceptual, in which a response to the same stimulus is facilitated, or it can be conceptual, where a response to a conceptually related stimulus is facilitated. For instance, the word table might facilitate a response to the word chair”
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22
Q
“That is, for perceptual priming, brain regions that underlie perceptual processing come into play, whereas for conceptual priming, brain regions involved in conceptual processing are important”
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A
23
Q
“Margaret Keane and colleagues (1995) examined H.M. and another patient, L.H., who suffered from bilateral damage to regions of the occipital lobe. Despite this damage and some visual deficits, L.H. was still able to read complete words. Both patients were presented with lists of words.”
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A
“When the words were then presented so briefly that they were difficult to read, H.M. was more likely to identify the words he had seen earlier, showing evidence of perceptual priming. L.H. failed to show perceptual priming. In contrast, L.H. was able”“priming. L.H. failed to show perceptual priming. In contrast, L.H. was able to report that he remembered some of the words presented earlier, whereas H.M. had no explicit memory of seeing the list.”
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24
Q
“Explicit memories are those that are consciously retrieved. They have been called”
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A
“declarative memories because you can declare that you know them. They are also sometimes described as knowing that.”
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25
“ Endel Tulving proposed that explicit memory can be”
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“divided into episodic memory and semantic memory”
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26
Episodic memory
“consists of a person’s memory of past experiences that can be identified as occurring at a time and place. In other words, you can remember the episode when the event occurred”
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27
Semantic memory
“is knowledge of concepts, categories, and facts independent of personal experience. You might not remember where or when you learned the information, but you know it (FIGURE 7.6). For instance, people know what Jell-O is, they know the capitals of countries they have never visited, and even people who have never played baseball know that three strikes mean the batter is out. Semantic memory is the vast store of knowledge about the world acquired throughout your life.
”
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28
“As the case of H.M. illustrates, the medial temporal lobes are responsible for the”
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“formation of new episodic memories”
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29
“Within the medial temporal lobes, the hippocampus is the brain region thought to be critical for”
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episodic memories
30
“hippocampus appears to be necessary for forming new episodic memories but not for”
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“etrieving older episodic memories.”
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31
“ Once the connections are strengthened sufficiently, the hippocampus becomes”
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“less important for the retrieval of the episodic memory.”
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32
“To remember the difference between explicit memories (episodic and semantic) and implicit procedural memories, think of explicit memories as knowing that and procedural memories as knowing how. You know that bicycles have two wheels and that you rode yours yesterday. You know how to ride a bicycle.”
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33
three british kids that “These injuries resulted in damage to localized parts of the hippocampus and did not extend to other regions of the medial temporal lob”
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constantly had to be monitored because they would forget - but had normal range IQ “These three, then, were able to store and retrieve semantic information even though they could not remember their own personal experiences”
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34
how did the three kids differ from HM
“In contrast to H.M., whose medial temporal lobe damage extended beyond the hippocampus, their ability to acquire new semantic knowledge was relatively intact.”
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35
“All memories go through three stages of processing:”
“encoding, in which memories are acquired; storage, which involves consolidation; and retrieval.”
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36
“Is your memory of what you ate for breakfast yesterday a semantic memory or an episodic memory?”
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“Answer: episodic, because it is a personal memory of an event that occurred at a time and place
”
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37
“ The process by which the perception of a stimulus or event gets transformed into a memory is called”
.
encoding
38
Encoding starts with
attention- “The more attention paid to a stimulus, the more likely it is to be encoded into memory.”
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39
“According to the dual-coding hypothesis,”
“information that can be coded verbally and visually will be remembered more easily than information that can be coded only verbally.”
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40
“According to the dual-coding hypothesis, would a presentation of the word car or the word ride be more likely to encode into memory, and why?
”
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a“nswer: Car, because it includes an easily visualized concept, which allows for both visual and verbal encoding”
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41
“ In their levels of processing model, the psychologists Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart (1972) suggested that the”
“more deeply an item is encoded and the more meaning it has, the better it is remembered. Although rehearsing an item might improve memory for that item, the way the item is rehearsed matters”
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42
Maintenance rehearsal is
“ Maintenance rehearsal is simply repeating the item over and over”
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43
Elaborative rehearsal
“Elaborative rehearsal encodes the information in more meaningful ways, such as thinking about the item conceptually or deciding whether it refers to oneself. In other words, in this type of rehearsal, we elaborate on basic information by linking it in meaningful ways to existing knowledge.”
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44
“Brain imaging studies have shown that semantic encoding activates more brain regions than”
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“shallow encoding and that this greater brain activity is associated with better memory”
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45
schemas
are cognitive structures in “emantic memory that help us perceive, organize, understand, and use information. As we sort through incoming information, schemas guide our attention to relevant features. Thanks to schemas, we construct new memories by filling in holes within existing memories, overlooking inconsistent information, and interpreting meaning based on past experiences.
”
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46
“Chunking is the process of”
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“breaking down information into meaningful units. For instance, master chess players who glance at a scenario on a chessboard, even for a few seconds, later can reproduce the exact arrangement of pieces (Chase & Simon, 1973). They can do so because they instantly chunk the board into a number of meaningful subunits based on their past experiences with the game”
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47
“In general, the greater your expertise with the material, the more efficiently you can”
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“chunk information during encoding, and therefore the more you can remember.”
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48
MNEMONICS
“ are learning aids or strategies to improve memory”
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49
“method of loci, or memory palace”
“This mnemonic strategy of associating items you want to remember with physical locations is referred to as the method of loci, or memory palace”
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50
“peg” method, which establishes a series of mental pegs to”
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hand memories on
51
memory champs use
training “here is nothing special about their memory abilities prior to training. In fact, Dellis claims he can teach a mnemonic for memorizing the 46 presidents of the United States, in order, in about 12 minutes”
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52
“How do mnemonics improve memory?”
“Answer: by organizing new information in ways that increase cohesion between the items to remember, deepen their meaning, or link them with existing knowledge”
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53
“In 1968, the psychologists Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin proposed a three-part model of memory. Their model consists of”
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“sensory memory, short-term or working memory, and long-term memory (FIGURE 7.14), which are differentiated by the length of time the information is retained in memory.”
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54
Sensory memory
“is a temporary memory system closely tied to the sensory systems. It is not what we usually think of when we think about memory, because it lasts only a fraction ”
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55
“When you look at something and quickly glance away, you can briefly picture the image and recall some of its details. This type of visual sensory memory is called”
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iconic memory
56
“When someone protests, “You’re not paying attention to me,” you might be able to repeat back the last few words the person spoke, even if you were thinking about something else. This type of auditory sensory memory is called”
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echoic memory
57
“ George Sperling initially proposed the existence of sensory memory. In a classic experiment (Sperling, 1960), three rows of letters were flashed on a screen for 1⁄20 of a second. Participants were asked to recall all the letters. Most people believed they had seen all the letters, but they could recall only three or four. These results might be taken to suggest tha”
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“ sensory memory stores only three or four items”
“ However, participants reported that even though all the letters were briefly available after being flashed, in the time it took them to name the first three o“four, they forgot the other letters. These reports suggest that the participants very quickly lost their memories of exactly what they had seen, but their sensory memories initially contained all that was perceived.
”
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58
“Sperling tested this hypothesis by showing all the letters exactly as he had done before, but this time he presented a high-, medium-, or low-pitched sound as soon as the letters disappeared. A high pitch meant the participants should recall the letters in the top row, a medium pitch meant they should recall the letters in the middle row, and a low pitch meant they should recall the letters in the bottom row. When the sound occurred right after the letters disappeared, the particpents
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“correctly remembered almost all the letters in the signaled row. But the longer the delay between the letters’ disappearance and the sound, the worse the participants performed. Sperling concluded that their iconic memory contained all the visual information perceived, but it persisted for only about 1⁄3 of a second. After that very brief period, the trace of the sensory memory faded progressively until it was no longer accessible.”
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59
“Our sensory memories enable us to experience the world as a continuous stream rather than in”
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discrete sensations
59
“How do iconic and echoic memory differ”
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“Answer: Iconic memory is sensory memory for visual information. Echoic memory is sensory memory for auditory information.
”
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60
“When we pay attention to something, the information passes from sensory stores to”
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short term memory
61
working memory (short term)
“actively retains and manipulates multiple pieces of temporary information from different sources (Baddeley, 2002; Baddeley & Hitch, 1974). Working memory represents what we are consciously focusing on at any point in time.”
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62
“Information remains in working memory for about 20 to 30 seconds. It then ”
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“Information remains in working memory for about 20 to 30 seconds. It then disappears unless you actively prevent it from doing so”
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63
“The cognitive psychologist George Miller (1956) noted that the limit is generally seven items (plus or minus two). This figure is referred to as ”
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memory span
64
“The capacity of working memory increases as”
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child develops
65
“How does working memory relate to attention?”
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“Answer: Information enters and is held in working memory via attention, actively thinking about it, or rehearsing it.
”
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66
“Long-term memory can last from”
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“a few minutes to forever, and its capacity is limitless”
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67
“Long-term memory is distinct from working memory in two important ways:”
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“It has a longer duration, and it has far greater capacity. Controversy exists, however, as to whether long-term memory represents a truly different type of memory storage from working memory”
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68
“Evidence supporting the idea that long-term memory and working memory are separate storage systems came from research that required people to recall long lists of words. The ability to recall items from the list depended on the order of presentation. That is, items presented early or late in the list were”
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“remembered better than those in the middle. This phenomenon is known as the serial position effect”
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69
“ serial position effect. This effect actually consists of two separate effects”
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“The primacy effect refers to the better memory that people have for items presented at the beginning of the list. The recency effect refers to the better memory that people have for the most recent items, the ones at the end of the list”
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70
“In some studies, researchers introduce a delay between the presentation of the list and the recall task. Such delays do not interfere with the primacy effect, but they do interfere with the”
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recency effect
71
“Perhaps the best support for the distinction between working memory and long-term memory comes from case studies such as that of H.M”
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“His working memory was perfectly normal, as shown by his ability to keep track of a conversation as long as he stayed actively involved in it. Aspects of H.M.’s long-term memory were intact, since he remembered events that occurred before his surgery. He was unable, however, to transfer new information from working memory into long-term memory.”
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72
“How can the distinction between long-term memory and working memory explain the primacy and recency effects?”
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“Answer: The primacy effect occurs because items presented earlier have been encoded into long-term memory, and the recency effect occurs because items presented later are still available in working memory.
”
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73
“process of forming the lasting connections that represent long-term memory is called”
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consolidation
74
“Because consolidation is gradual, it is not uncommon following a concussion or other head injury to forget what happened immediately before. The head injury appears to disrupt the consolidation of memory.”
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true
75
“Donald Hebb proposed that memory results from ”
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“ alterations in synaptic connections. In Hebb’s model, memories are stored in multiple regions of the brain that are linked through memory circuits. When one neuron excites another, some change takes place that strengthens the connection between the two neurons. Subsequently, the firing of one neuron becomes increasingly likely to cause the firing of the other neuron. In other words, “cells that fire together wire together.”
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76
“Long-term memory involves the creation of ”
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neural circuits
77
“ Long-term potentiation (LTP) is the”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“strengthening of a synaptic connection, making the postsynaptic neurons more easily activated by presynaptic neurons. LTP serves as a model of how neural plasticity (discussed in Chapter 3) might underlie long-term memory.”
Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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78
“To remember how memories are consolidated in the brain through long-term potentiation, use Hebb’s mnemonic: Neurons that fire together wire together. Additional tip: Also remember this as an example of a ”
Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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mnemonic
79
“A critical player in LTP is the”
Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“NMDA receptor on the postsynaptic neuron. This type of glutamate receptor responds only when large amounts of glutamate are available in the synapse and when the postsynaptic neuron is sufficiently depolarized. LTP leads to an increase in the number of glutamate receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, which increases its responsivity to glutamate released by the presynaptic neuron. It can also produce more synapses between neurons. Memory results from strengthening synaptic connections among networks of neurons. They fired together, so they wired together.”
Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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80
“How does long-term potentiation support Hebb’s idea that neurons that fire together wire together?”
Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“Answer: LTP demonstrates that the receptivity of a postsynaptic neuron increases after repeated neurotransmission from the presynaptic neuron.
”
Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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81
primary benefit of gradual consolidation
“ it allows things that happen after you experience an event to influence the storage of memory for that event. During consolidation, memories for some events are stored and others are not, resulting in forgetting. It would be better if the memories that persisted were those for more important or consequential events, but we do not always know whether something is important while it is happening. Events that you think about more often, those that you are reminded of, or those that elicit emotion are more likely to be important.”
Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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82
“If the consolidation of memories involves enhancing connections between neurons that represent the memory, it follows that the more these neurons fire together, the more likely they are to wire together. One way this occurs is by”
Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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memory replay in the brain
83
FLASHBULB MEMORIES
“These are vivid memories of the circumstances in which people first learn of a surprising and consequential or emotionally arousing event.”
“ the attack on the U.S. Capitol in 2021 and (b) the terrorist attack on the World Trade Center on 9/11 in 2001.”
Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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84
“One reason flashbulb memories are so persistent may be that these shocking events elicit arousal, which enhances”
Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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their consolidation
85
“ Participants were initially surveyed a few weeks after the attack, and again a year, three years, and 10 years later. When tested after a year, memories for personal details related to 9/11—such as how they learned about the attack, how they felt, and what they were doing beforehand—were”
Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“ifferent from the initial reports more than 40 percent of the time.”
Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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86
“Why is a slow consolidation of memories beneficial?”
Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“Answer: It allows for reminders, replay, and emotions after the event to influence the consolidation process, increasing the likelihood that more important and consequential events are remembered.”
Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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87
“sometimes when a memory is retrieved (but not always) it is consolidated again. This second consolidation process is called”
Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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reconsolidation
88
“Researchers have shown that fear memories can be altered by using”
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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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extinction
89
Retrieval practice
“ a strategy of bringing information to mind by deliberately trying to recall it.”
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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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90
“What are the two proposed functions of reconsolidation?”
Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“Answer: memory modification and strengthening
”
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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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91
“A retrieval cue can be”
Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“A retrieval cue can be anything that helps a person (or a nonhuman animal) recall a memory.”
Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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92
“ According to the encoding specificity principle, any stimulus encoded along with an experience can”
Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“ According to the encoding specificity principle, any stimulus encoded along with an experience can later trigger a memory of the experience”
Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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93
“This kind of memory enhancement, when the recall situation is similar to the encoding situation, is known as ”
Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“This kind of memory enhancement, when the recall situation is similar to the encoding situation, is known as context-dependent memory.”
Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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94
“Context-dependent memory can be based on things such as”
Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“physical location, odors, and background music, many of which produce a sense of familiarity”
Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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95
“internal cues can affect the recovery of information from long-term memory.”
Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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state-dependent memory
96
“State-dependent memory also applies to internal states brought on by ”
Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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drugs and alcohol
97
“What are the retrieval cues for context-dependent memory and state-dependent memory?”
Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“Answer: Physical/situational factors act as retrieval cues in context-dependent memory, and internal conditions act as retrieval cues in state-dependent memory.
”
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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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98
“Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885/1964) examined how long it took people to relearn lists of nonsense syllables”
Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885/1964) examined how long it took people to relearn lists of nonsense syllables”
Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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99
“If a memory lasts longer than five years”
Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“ there is a good chance it will likely last a lifetime”
Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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100
“within a day, and the rate of forgetting slows over time.
”
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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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101
“The difference between the original learning and relearning is called”
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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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savings
102
“some forgetting occurs because of ”
Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“nterference from other information. Additional information can lead to forgetting through proactive interference or retroactive interference. In both cases, competing information displaces the information we are trying to retrieve.
”
Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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103
proactive interference
“old information inhibits the ability to remember new information. For instance, if you study for your psychology test, then switch to studying for your anthropology test, and then take the anthropology test, your performance on the test might be impaired by your knowledge about psychology”
Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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104
retroactive interference,
“new information inhibits the ability to remember old information. So when it comes time to take the psychology test, your performance might suffer because you recall the freshly reinforced anthropology material instead”
Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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105
Blocking occurs when
“a person is temporarily unable to remember something:”
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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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106
“Roger Brown and David McNeill (1966) described another example of blocking”
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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“ the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon”
“ in which people experience great frustration as they try to recall specific, somewhat obscure words.”
Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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107
“he tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon increases with age, perhaps because”
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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“older people have more memories that might interfere.”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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108
Absentmindedness
“results from the shallow encoding of events. The major cause of absentmindedness is failing to pay attention.”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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109
Memory bias
“is the changing of memories over time so that they become consistent with current beliefs, knowledge, or attitudes”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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110
“Someone who acted as a bully in middle school now has an anti-bullying attitude in college. How might this attitude change affect their memory?”
Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“nswer: They might remember their bullying behaviors in a way that justifies the behaviors or minimizes their negative impact.”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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111
Source misattribution
“occurs when people misremember the time, place, person, or circumstances involved with a memory. A good example of this phenomenon is the false fame effect. Ask yourself: Is Richard Shiffrin famous? Try to think for a second how you know him. If you thought he was famous, you might have recalled that Shiffrin was one of the psychologists who introduced the model of sensory, short-term, and long-term memory (an accomplishment that might make him famous in some scientific circles). Alternatively, you might have remembered reading his name before, even if you could not remember where.”
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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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112
“In a study of the false fame effect, the psychologist Larry Jacoby had research participants read aloud a list of made-up names (Jacoby et al., 1989). The participants were told that the research project was about pronunciation. The next day, Jacoby had the same people participate in an apparently unrelated study. This time, they were asked to read a list of names and decide whether each person was famous or not. The participants misjudged some of the made-up names from the previous day as being those of famous people. Because the participants knew they had heard the names before but probably could not remember where, they assumed the familiar names were those of famous people.”
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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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113
“ example of source misattribution is the sleeper effect”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“sleeper effect occurs when an argument that is not very persuasive at first because it comes from a questionable source seems more credible over time as the source is forgotten”
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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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114
Source amnesia
“is a form of misattribution that occurs when people have a memory for an event but cannot remember where they encountered the information”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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115
nfantile amnesia
“The ability to form lasting episodic memories is thought to depend on the early development of the prefrontal cortex and language abilities. If you have a specific memory from around this age or earlier, the memory is likely to have come from another source, such as your parents, siblings, or a picture from your childhood.
”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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116
CRYPTOMNESIA
“An intriguing example of source misattribution is cryptomnesia, in which people think they have come up with a new idea. Instead, they have retrieved an old idea from memory and failed to attribute the idea to its proper source”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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117
“During the early 1970s, Elizabeth Loftus and her colleagues conducted important research on biased memories. The results demonstrated that people have a tendency, known as”
Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“suggestibility, to develop biased memories when provided with misleading information.”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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118
“Loftus’s Studies on Suggestibility”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“When asked whether another car passed the red Datsun when it was at a stop sign, many participants who had seen the car stopped at a yield sign misremembered seeing a stop sign instead.”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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119
“In another experiment, Loftus and John Palmer (1974) showed participants a video of a car accident. When participants heard the word smashed applied to the video, they estimated the cars to be traveling faster than when they heard contacted, hit, bumped, or collided. In a related study, participants saw a video of a car accident and then were asked about seeing the cars either smash into or hit each other. One week later, they were asked if they had seen broken glass on the ground in the video. No glass broke in the video, but nearly one third of those who heard smashed falsely recalled having seen broken glass. Very few of those who heard hit recalled broken glass.”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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120
FALSE MEMORIES
“FALSE MEMORIES How easily can people develop false memories? To consider this question, read aloud the following list: sour, candy, sugar, bitter, good, taste, tooth, nice, honey, soda, chocolate, heart, cake, tart, pie. Now put aside your book and write down as many of the words as you remember.
Researchers have devised tests such as this for investigating whether people can be misled into recalling or recognizing events that did not happen (Roediger & McDermott, 1995). For instance, without looking back at the list, answer this question: Which of the following words did you recall—candy, honey, tooth, sweet, pie?
If you recalled sweet or think you did, you have experienced a false memory, because sweet was not on the original list. All the words on that list are related to sweetness, though. This basic procedure produces false recollections reliably. It occurs because each word makes you think of related words. This semantic knowledge of related words leads to potential confusion about which of the related words you actually read. A brain imaging study showed that related words produce overlapping patterns of brain activity in the frontmost portion of the temporal lobe, where semantic information is processed (Chadwick et al., 2016[…]”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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121
“When people imagine an event happening, they form a mental image of the event, and they might later confuse that mental image with a real memory.”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“ It is unlikely, however, that false memories can be created for certain types of unusual events, such as receiving an enema (Pezdek & Hodge, 1999).”
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122
REPRESSED MEMORIES
123
“(a) Eileen Franklin (center) claimed to have recovered a previously repressed memory that her father had murdered a friend of hers two decades earlier. (b) ”
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“(a) Eileen Franklin (center) claimed to have recovered a previously repressed memory that her father had murdered a friend of hers two decades earlier. (b) George Franklin was found guilty and imprisoned based on his daughter’s testimony. Evidence subsequently emerged proving his innocence, and he was released.”
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Elizabeth A. Phelps
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124
“Why should witnesses of a crime be asked to write down their complete memory before being asked any specific questions?
”
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Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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“Answer: Because of suggestibility, the specific questions asked could influence the witness’s memory.
”
Excerpt From
Psychological Science (Seventh Edition)
Elizabeth A. Phelps
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