Chapter 40 Basic Principles of Animal Form and Function Flashcards
The comparative study of animals reveals that form and function are __________ correlated.
Closely
Evolutionary ____________ reflects different species adaptations to a similar environmental challenge
Convergence
Rate of exchange is proportional to a cell’s ___________ while
Amount of exchange material is proportional to a cell’s ________
Surface area
Volume
The surface area to volume ratio gets ___________ as the cell gets larger
Smaller
Does diffusion happen in humans?
No, only when the organism is two cells thick
More complex organisms have…
For exchanging materials
Highly folded internal surfaces
In vertebrates, the space between cells is filled with _____________, which allows for the movement of materials into and out of cells
Interstitial fluid
Most animals are composed of specialized cells organized into ___________ that have different functions
Tissues
Tissues are classified into four main categories:
- epithelial
- connective
- muscle
- nervous
Epithelial tissue functions…
- protection
- sensation
- secretion
- absorption
- excretion
- diffusion
- cleaning
- reduces friction
- tissue that Covers the outside of the body and lines the organs and cavities within the body
- it contains cells that are closely joined
- the shape of these cells can vary
Epithelial tissue
This shape of epithelial tissue is used for secretion
Cuboidal (like dice)
-Circular nucleus
This shape of epithelial tissue is used for secretion and selective absorption
Columnar (like bricks on end)
-elongated nucleus at base of cells, seen in stomach intestines mucus
This shape of epithelial tissue is used for exchange of materials by diffusion
Squamous (like floor tiles)
Alveolus, gas exchange, blood vessels
Some _________ epithelial tissue have goblet cells that secrete mucus
Columnar
This type of epithelial tissue is used as a protective barrier. Seen in the skin and esophagus lining
Stratified squamous epithelium
What are the different arrangements of epithelial cells?
- Single cell layer
- stratified (multiple tiers of cells)
- Pseudostratified (A single layer of cells of varying lengths, nuclei are in different locations)
Where is stratified epithelial cells found?
Mouth, skin, anus, vagina
Epithelial cells do not have polarity
True or false?
False. Epithelial cells have polarity.
In epithelial cells the apical surface faces the lumen and is therefore exposed to fluid or air
The opposite side is the basal __________ which is connected to the basil ________.
Surface
Lamina
Apical surface —> basal surface —> Basil lamina
- This tissue binds and supports other tissues
- contain sparsely packed cells scattered throughout an extracellular matrix
Connective tissue
What is the matrix?
Web of fibers in bedded in a liquid, can be jelly like or solid foundation
Fiber cells are called ___________ and secrete….
Fibroblasts
Fiber proteins
What are the three types of connective tissue fibers?
- collagenous fibers (strength and flexibility)
- elastic fibers (stretch and snapback, elastic properties)
- reticular fibers (join connective tissue to adjacent tissues)
What is the function of Fibroblasts?
Secrete proteins to make fibers
What is the function of macrophages?
Part of the immune system (WBC), engulfs foreign debris.
What are the six major types of connective tissue?
- loose connective tissue
- cartilage
- fibrous connective tissue
- Adipose tissue
- blood
- bone
This type of connective tissue binds epithelial to underlying tissue. Holds organs in place
Loose connective tissue
This type of connective tissue contains chondrocytes that secrete collagen and chondroitin sulfate. Makes a strong but very flexible material.
Cartilage
Type of connective tissue that is very dense* with Collagenous fibers, and less matrix. include tendons and ligaments
Where are tendons and ligaments found?
Fibrous connective tissue
Tendons-Connect muscle to bone
Ligaments-Connect bone to bone
Type of connective tissue that is very loose and stores fat for padding and insulating the body
Adipose tissue
This connective tissue contains plasma that is a liquid matrix composed of erythrocytes, leukocytes, cell fragments called platelets, water, salt, and dissolved proteins.
Blood
This type of connective tissue is mineralized and forms the skeleton, contains osteoblasts
Bone
Bone forming cells called ___________ deposit a matrix of collagen. Calcium, magnesium, and phosphate ions combine into a hard mineral within the matrix.
Osteoblasts
What are the different types of muscle tissue?
- Skeletal muscle
- smooth muscle
- cardiac muscle
Skeletal muscle is….
Striated, voluntary movements, sarcomeres
Smooth muscle…
Lack striations, involuntary movements, spindle-shaped
Ex: turning of the stomach, construction of arteries
Cardiac muscle…
branched, striated, intercalated discs (so the muscles can contract in unison), involuntary
Type of tissue that senses stimuli and transmit signals throughout the animal
Contains neurons and glial cells
Nervous tissue
Nerve cells that transmit nerve impulses from axons
Neurons. These do not divide
These cells help nourish, insulate, and replenish neurons
These cells can divide.
Glial cells/glia
Coordination and control within a body depends on which two systems?
Nervous and endocrine system
This body system transmits hormones to receptive cells throughout the body via blood
- hormones may affect one or more regions in the body
- slow acting, but can have long lasting effects
- gradual changes affect entire body (growth and development)
Endocrine system
- transmits information between specific locations
- The information conveyed depends on a signal pathway not the type of signal
- Signal transmission is very fast
- impulses can be received by neurons, muscle cells, endocrine cells, and exocrine cells
- provides immediate and rapid responses to the environment
The nervous system
In the nervous system, information conveyed depends on a signal’s _____________, Not the type of signal.
Pathway
Animals manage their internal environment by __________ or __________ to the external environment.
Regulating or conforming
Animals may regulate some environmental variables while conforming to others.
True or false?
True
Which type of animal maintains constant internal conditions?
Regulator or conformer?
Regulator
_______________ moderate changes in the internal environment
Mechanisms of homeostasis
For a given variable, fluctuations above or below a set point serve as a _________
These are detected by a…
And trigger a….
Stimulus
Sensor
Response
- Used to maintain dynamic equilibrium of homeostasis
- helps to return a variable to a normal range
- build up of the end product shut the system off
Negative feedback
- most homeostatic control systems function this way
Amplifies a stimulus and does not usually contribute to homeostasis in animals
Positive feedback
What are examples of alterations in homeostasis?
Changes due to age or cyclical variation (mensural cycle hormones), Circadian rhythms
Homeostasis can adjust to changes in external environment by a process called…
Acclimatization
body adapts* ex: High altitude, blood pH becomes more basic, increase in respiration, increase in production of red blood cells
The process by which animals maintain an internal temperature within a tolerable range
Thermalregulation
-animals generate heat by metabolism
-maintain constant body temperature
Ex: birds and mammals
Endothermic
-animals gain heat from external sources
Ex: most invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, nonavian reptiles
Ectothermic
Which is energetically more expensive?
Endotherm‘s or ectotherm‘s?
Endotherms
In general, ___________ tolerate greater variation in internal temperature, while __________ are active at a greater range of external temperatures
Ectotherms
Endotherms
Body temperature varies with its environment
Poikilotherm
Ex: bats, animals that hibernate
Body temperature is relatively constant
Homeotherm
Ex: fish that live in a Constant environmental temperature
Organisms exchange heat by four physical processes…
- radiation: emissions of electromagnetic waves
- evaporation
- convection: transfer by wind, air, water to heat
- conduction: Direct contact
Heat regulation in mammals often involves the ___________ system.
Integumentary
Five adaptations that help animals thermoregulate…
- insulation
- circulatory adaptations
- cooling by evaporative heat loss
- behavioral responses
- adjusting metabolic heat production
- A major thermal regulatory adaptation in mammals and birds
- especially important in marine mammals such as whales and walruses (blubber)
Insulation
The transfer of heat between fluids flowing in opposite directions and reduce heat loss
- heat of the arteries goes to the vein
Countercurrent exchange
- The adjustment of metabolic heat production to maintain body temperature
- increased by muscle activity such as moving or shivering
Thermogenesis
What type of fat is specialized for making heat?
Brown fat
Takes place with hormones cause mitochondria to increase their metabolic activity. Instead of making ATP in mitochondria will make Heat.
Non-shivering thermogenesis
What region of the brain controls thermal regulation?
Triggers heat loss or heat generating mechanisms
Hypothalamus
This is the overall flow and transformation of energy in an animal
It determines how much food animal needs and it relates to animals size, activity, and environment
Bioenergetics
______________ includes body growth and repair, synthesis of storage material such as fat, and production of gametes
Biosynthesis
- amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of time (measured in joules)
- can be determined by an animal’s heat loss, the amount of oxygen or carbon dioxide produced, food consumption and waste
Metabolic rate
The metabolic rate of an endothermic at rest at a comfortable temperature
Basal metabolic rate (BMR)
The metabolic rate of an ectotherm at rest at a specific temperature
Standard metabolic rate (SMR)
What are two influences on metabolic rate besides whether an animal is an endothermic or ectotherm?
Size and activity
__________ animals have higher metabolic rate per gram
Smaller
-smaller animals have higher oxygen delivery rate, breathing rate, heart rate, integrative relative blood volume compared to larger animals
In general, the maximum metabolic rate an animal can sustain is _________ Related to the duration of the activity
Inversely
- different species use energy and materials in food in different ways, depending on their environment
- Use of energy is partitioned to BMR (or SMR), activity, thermal regulation, growth, and reproduction
Energy budgets
-The physiological state in which activity is low and metabolism decreases
Torpor
Ex: sleep, bats
Long term torpor that is an adaptation to winter cold and food scarcity
Hibernation
Summer torpor that enables animals to survive long periods of high temperatures and scare water
Estivation
