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AP Biology > Chapter 4 > Flashcards

Chapter 4 Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What do cells contain?

A

Water and other small and large molecules

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2
Q

How many different types of molecules do cells have?

A

Over 10,000

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3
Q

What do cells use their molecules for?

A

~transforming matter and energy
~responding to their environments
~reproducing

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4
Q

cell theory

A

~cells are the fundamental units of life
~all living organisms are composed of cells
~all cells come from preexisting cells

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5
Q

What is the diameter range for most cells?

A

1 to 100 micrometers

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6
Q

surface area-to-volume ratio

A

decreases as the size increases

as an object increases in volume, its surface area also increases, but not as quickly

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7
Q

What does the volume of a cell determine?

A

the amount of metabolic activity it carries out per unit time

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8
Q

What does the surface area of a cell determine?

A

the amount of substances that can enter it from the outside environment, and the amount of waste products that can exit to the environment

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9
Q

What happens as a living cell grows larger?

A

metabolic activity, and thus its need for resources and its rate of waste production, increases faster than its surface area

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10
Q

Substance motion is more easily accomplished in what size cell?

A

smaller cells

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11
Q

How does a multicellular organism make use of the surface area-to-volume ratio?

A

large surface area-to-volume ratio represented by the many small cells of a multicellular organism enables it to carry out the many different functions required for survival

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12
Q

What is another way for cells to attain an adequate exchange of materials with the environment?

A

increase surface area through folds in the cell membrane or increase the rate of exchange of materials across the cell

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13
Q

light microscope

A

~uses glass lenses and visible light to form images
~size limit is 0.2 micrometers
~visualise living cells and general cell structure

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14
Q

electron microscope

A

~uses an electron beam focused by magnets to illuminate a specimen and produce an image on a TV-like screen
~size limit is 0.1 nanometers
~specimens must be preserved and stained using toxic heavy metals

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15
Q

cell membrane

A

~selectively permeable barrier
~allows cell to maintain a stable internal environment distinct from the surrounding environment
~important in communicating with adjacent cells and receiving signals from the environment
~has proteins responsible for binding and adhering to adjacent cells or surfaces
~important structural role, contributes to shapes

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16
Q

What are the three domains?

A

Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya

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17
Q

prokaryotes

A

~Archaea and Bacteria kingdoms
~typically no membrane-enclosed internal compartments
~no nucleus

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18
Q

eukaryotes

A

~contains membrane-enclosed compartments called organelles

~contains a nucleus, where DNA is located and gene expression begins

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19
Q

advantages of compartmentalization

A

provides possibilities for regulation and efficiency that were important in the evolution of complex organisms

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20
Q

cell membrane (prokaryotes)

A

encloses the cell, separating its interior from the external environment, and regulates the traffic of materials into and out of the cell

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21
Q

nucleoid

A

region in the cell where the DNA is located

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22
Q

DNA

A

the hereditary material that controls cell growth, maintenance, and reproduction

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23
Q

cytoplasm (prokaryotes)

A

the rest of the material inside the cell (liquid and other insoluble filaments/particles)

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24
Q

cytosol (prokaryotes)

A

consists mostly of water containing dissolved ions, small molecules, and soluble macromolecules such as proteins

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25
Q

ribosomes (prokaryotes)

A

complexes of RNA and proteins that are the sites of protein synthesis

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26
Q

protein synthesis

A

where the information encoded by nucleic acids directs the sequential linking of amino acids to form proteins

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27
Q

cell wall (prokaryotes)

A

~supports cell and determines shape
~mostly containing peptidoglycan
~some bacteria have cell walls with phospholipid membranes or layers of polysaccharides

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28
Q

capsule (prokaryotes)

A

the polysaccharide layer enclosing the cell in bacteria, which protects the bacteria from attack, keeps the cell from drying out, and sometimes helps them attach to other cells

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29
Q

internal membrane

A

~in some groups of bacteria

~contains molecules needed for photosynthesis

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30
Q

flagella (prokaryotes)

A

~appendages that help cells swim and move around

~made of protein called flagellin

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31
Q

cytoskeleton (prokaryotes)

A

filaments made up of polymers of monomer subunits that play roles in cell division or in maintaining the shapes of cells

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32
Q

Why is compartmentalisation the key to eukaryotic cell function?

A

each type of organelle has a specific role in the cell

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33
Q

ribosomes (eukaryotes)

A

~translate the nucleotide sequence of a messenger RNA molecule into a polypeptide chain
~consist of one larger and one smaller subunit, each containing one to three ribosomal RNA molecules and smaller protein molecules
~not membrane-enclosed compartments

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34
Q

nucleus (eukaryotes)

A 
~contains most of the DNA
~usually the largest organelle
~location of the DNA and the site of DNA replication
~where DNA is transcribed into RNA
~contains a region called the nucleolus
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35
Q

nucleolus

A

a region inside the nucleus where ribosomes begin to assemble from RNA and proteins

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36
Q

What is the nucleus enclosed by?

A

two lipid bilayer membranes that together form the nuclear envelope

37
Q

chromosomes

A

extremely long, thin threads of DNA molecules and proteins

38
Q

chromatin

A

DNA-protein complexes

39
Q

What is the outer membrane of the nucleus continuous with?

A

the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum

40
Q

endomembrane system

A

~interconnected system of membrane-enclosed compartments

~includes: nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes

41
Q

vesicles

A

tiny membrane-surrounded droplets which shuttle substances between the various components of the endomembrane system

42
Q

endoplasmic reticulum

A

networks of interconnected membranes branching through the cytoplasm, forming tubes and flattened sacs

43
Q

rough endoplasmic reticulum

A

~has ribosomes attached to the outer surface of the membrane
~protein enters if it contains a specific sequence of amino acids that signals the ribosome to attach to the RER
~inside, proteins are chemically modified to induce 3D functional shape
~transports proteins to other locations in the cell

44
Q

glycoproteins

A

proteins covalently linked to carbohydrate groups

45
Q

smooth endoplasmic reticulum

A

~connects to portions of the RER but lacks ribosomes and is more tubular
~chemical modification of small molecules
~glycogen degradation in animal cells
~where lipids and steroids are synthesised
~stores calcium ions, which when released trigger a number of cell responses, including muscle contraction

46
Q

Golgi apparatus

A

~cisternae and small vesicles
~concentrates, packages, and sorts proteins before they are sent to their cellular or extracellular destinations
~adds some carbohydrates to proteins
~where some polysaccharides for the plant cell wall are synthesised

47
Q

cisternae

A

~cis region - lies closest to the nucleus or a patch of RER, protein-containing vesicles fuse here
~trans region - lies closest to the cell membrane, vesicles carry their component away from the Golgi apparatus
~medial region - lies in between

48
Q

primary lysosomes

A

~originate from the Golgi apparatus
~contain hydrolases (digestive enzymes)
~macromolecules (proteins, polysaccharides, nucleic acids, and lipids) are hydrolysed into their monomers

49
Q

phagocytosis

A

pocket forms in the cell membrane and then deepens and encloses material from outside the cell, becoming a phagosome which breaks free of the cell membrane to move into the cytoplasm

50
Q

phagosome

A

a small vesicle containing macromolecules, formed by phagocytosis, which can fuse with a primary lysosome to form a secondary lysosome

51
Q

secondary lysosome

A

where hydrolysis occurs, later fuses with the cell membrane to release undigested contents to the environment

52
Q

phagocytes

A

specialised cells whose major role is to take in and break down materials

53
Q

autophagy

A

the programmed destruction of cell components

54
Q

mitochondria

A

~primary function is to harvest the chemical energy of energy-rich molecules in a form the cell can use, namely ATP
~contains some DNA
~can divide independently of the central nucleus
~outer membrane - large pores which most substances can pass through
~inner membrane - extensively folded into cristae
~contains enzymes for energy metabolism, as well as DNA and ribosomes for the synthesis of some mitochondrial proteins

55
Q

mitochondrial matrix

A

fluid-filled region inside the inner membrane

56
Q

ATP

A

adenosine triphosphate, an energy rich nucleotide

57
Q

plastids

A

present in the cells of plants and algae and can divide autonomously

58
Q

chloroplast

A

~contains chlorophyll

~site of photosynthesis

59
Q

thylakoids

A

~internal membranes of the chloroplast that look like stacks of flat, hollow disks
~here, light is converted into chemical energy

60
Q

grana

A

stacks of thylakoids

61
Q

peroxisomes

A

accumulate toxic peroxides and break them down safely without mixing with other components of the cell

62
Q

glyoxysomes

A

~found only in plants

~converts stored lipids into carbohydrates for transport to growing cells

63
Q

vacuoles

A

~storage for toxic by-products and waste products
~structure, dictates turgor pressure based on osmosis
~contains some pigments which help in attracting animals for pollination and seed dispersal
~contain enzymes for catabolism that hydrolyse stored seed proteins into monomers

64
Q

roles of the cytoskeleton

A

~supports the cell and maintains its shape
~holds cell organelles in position
~moves organelles and other particles around within the cell
~involved with cytoplasmic streaming
~interacts with extracellular structures

65
Q

cytoplasmic streaming

A

movements of the cytoplasm

66
Q

What are the components of the eukaryotic cytoskeleton?

A

~microfilaments (smallest diameter)
~intermediate filaments
~microtubules (largest diameter)

67
Q

microfilaments

A

~help entire cell or cell parts to move
~determine and stabilise cell shape
~made from actin monomers
~dynamic instability

68
Q

actin

A

monomers that attach to the filament at one end (plus end) and detach at the other (minus end) to assemble microfilaments

69
Q

motor protein

A

any protein that causes movement within a cell

70
Q

pseudopodia

A

cellular extensions formed by microfilaments that enable some cells to move

71
Q

intermediate filaments

A

~more permanent and do not show dynamic instability
~anchor cell structures in place
~resist tension

72
Q

microtubules

A

~form a rigid internal skeleton for some cells or cell regions
~act as a framework along which motor proteins can move structures within the cell
~dynamic instability

73
Q

tubulin

A

the protein which microtubules are assembled from

74
Q

cilia

A

move stiffly either to propel a cell or to move fluid over a stationary cell

75
Q

flagella

A

occur either singly or in pairs, and can push or pull the cell through its aqueous environment

76
Q

“9+2” array of microtubules

A

9 fused pairs of microtubules (doublets) form an outer cylinder, and one pair of unfused microtubules runs up the centre

77
Q

dynein molecules

A

a motor protein, which can change its three dimensional shape, that binds between two neighbouring microtubule doublets

78
Q

kinesin

A

carry protein-laden vesicles or other organelles from one part of the cell to another by “walking” it along a microtubule

79
Q

Dynein moves attached organelles towards which end of the microtubules?

A

minus end

80
Q

Kinesin moves attached organelles towards which end of the microtubules?

A

plus end

81
Q

What are the “extracellular” molecules made from?

A

~fibrous macromolecule

~gel-like medium in which the fibres are embedded

82
Q

What are the roles of the cell wall?

A

~provides support for the cell and limits the volume of a mature cell by remaining rigid
~acts as a barrier to infection by fungi and other organisms that can cause plant diseases
~contributes to plant form by controlling the direction of cell expansion during growth and development

83
Q

plasmodesmata

A

cell membrane-lined channels connecting the cytoplasms of adjacent plant cells

84
Q

extracellular matrix

A

~hold cells together in tissues
~contribute to physical properties of tissues
~filter materials passing between different tissues
~orient cell movements during embryonic development and tissue repair

85
Q

What connects the cell membrane to the extracellular matrix?

A

proteins (ex: integrin) that bind to the interior of the cell and to collagen in the extracellular matrix

86
Q

cell junction

A

specialised structures protruding from adjacent cells to “glue” them together

87
Q

tight junctions

A

prevent substances from moving through spaces between cells

88
Q

desmoosmes

A

hold adjacent cells together with stable protein connections, but materials can still move around in the extracellular matrix

89
Q

gap junctions

A

channels that run between membrane pores in adjacent cells, allowing substances to pass between cells

AP Biology (19 decks)

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