chapter 3

Question 1

attachment

Answer 1

a warm, close relationship with an adult who provides an infant with a sense of security and stimulation

Question 2

birth cohort

Answer 2

a group of people who were born during the same period of one or several years and who are, therefore, all exposed to particular historical events at approximately the same age

Question 3

borderwork

Answer 3

interaction across gender boundaries that is based on and strengthens such boundaries

Question 4

career

Answer 4

a sequence of roles- each role with its own set of activites- that a person enacts during their lifetime. People’s most important careers are in the domains of family and friends, education, and work

Question 5

content analysis

Answer 5

a research method that involves a systematic scrutiny of documents or messages to identify specific characteristics and then making inferences based on their occurence

Question 6

cultural routines

Answer 6

recurrent and predictable activities that are basic day to day social life

Question 7

dependent variable

Answer 7

in an experiment, the variable that is measured to determine whether it is affected by the manipulation of one or more other variables (independent variables)

Question 8

experiment

Answer 8

a research method used to investigate cause and effecr relations between one variable (the independent variable) and another (the dependent variable). In an experiment, the investigator manipulates the independent variable, randomlt assigns participants to various levels of that variable, and measures the dependent variable

Question 9

external validity

Answer 9

the extent to which it is possible to generalize the results of one study to orher populations, settings, or times

Question 10

extrinsically motivated behaviour

Answer 10

a behaviour that results from the motivation to obtain a reward (food, praise) or avoid a punishment (spanking, criticism) controlled by someone else.

Question 11

field study

Answer 11

an investigation that involves the collection of data about ongoing activity in everyday settings

Question 12

gender roles

Answer 12

the behavioural expectations associated with gender

Question 13

independent variable

Answer 13

in an experiment, the variable that is manipulated by the investigator to study the effects on one or more other (dependent variables)

Question 14

informed consent

Answer 14

voluntary consent by an individual to participate in a research project based on info recieved abour what their participation will entail

Question 15

instrumental conditioning

Answer 15

the process through which an individual learns a behaviour in response to a stimulus to obtain a reeard or avoid a punishment

Question 16

internal validity

Answer 16

the extent to which research findings are free from contamination by extraneous variables

Question 17

internalization

Answer 17

the process through which initially external behaviour standards become internal and subsequently guide an individual’s behaviour

Question 18

intrinsically motivated behaviour

Answer 18

a behaviour that results from the motivation to achieve an internal state that an individual finds rewarding

Question 19

life course

Answer 19

an individual’s progression through a series of socially defined, age-linked social roles

Question 20

life event

Answer 20

an episode marking a transition point in the life course that provokes coping and readjustments

Question 21

moral development

Answer 21

the process through which a child becomes capable of making moral judgements

Question 22

norm

Answer 22

in groups, a standard or rule that specifies how members are expected to behave under given circumstances; expectations concerning which behaviours are acceptable and which are unacceptable for specific persons in specific situations

Question 23

normative life stage

Answer 23

a discrete period in the life course during which individuals are expected to perform the set of activities associated with a distinct age related role

Question 24

normative transition

Answer 24

socially expected changes made by all or most members of a defined population

Question 25

observational learning

Answer 25

the acquisition of behaviour based on the observation of another person’s behaviouf and of its consequences for that person. Also known as modeling

Question 26

punishment

Answer 26

a painful or discomforting stimulus that reduced the frequency with which the target behaviour occurs

Question 27

reinforcement theory

Answer 27

a theoretical perspective based on the premise that social behaviour is governed by external events, especially rewards and punishments

Question 28

role identities

Answer 28

individuals’ concept of self in specific social roles

Question 29

self reinforcement

Answer 29

an individual’s use of internalized standards to judge their own behaviour and reward the self

Question 30

shaping

Answer 30

the learning process in which an agent initially reinforces any behaviour that remotely resembles the desired response and subsequently requires increasing correspondence between the learner’s behaviour and the desired response before providing reinforcement

Question 31

socialization

Answer 31

the process through which indivoduals learn skills, knowledge, values, motives, and roles appropriate to their positions in a group or society

Question 32

stress

Answer 32

the condition in which the demands made on the person exceed the individual’s ability to cope with them

Question 33

perspectives on socialization

Answer 33

• emphasizes biological development
• emphasizes learning and acquiring skills from other persons
• emphasizes the child’s participation of cultural routines as they participate in and recreate them
• emphasizes the influence of social structure