Chapter 09: The Market Revolution (1800-1840) Flashcards
1
Q
What things were built in rapid succession during the first half of the 19th-century?
A
- Steamboat
- Canal
- Railroad
- Telegraph
2
Q
What (3) impacts on the economy did railroads, steamboats, and canals have during the first half of the 19th century?
A
[1] Lowered transportation costs
[2] Easier to sell products
[3] Linked farmers to wider markets
- linked with world markets
- made farmers major consumers of manufactured goods
3
Q
What expansion happened (road development) during 1806-1838?
A
1806-1838: National Road
- authorized Congress
Cumberland → Maryland → Old Northwest
1818: Wheeling (Ohio River)
1838: Illinois
4
Q
What was the effect of the National Road (2)?
A
- Increased transportation speed
- lowered cost
5
Q
Explain the steamboat development from the 1790s-1807?
What was the effects?
A
Who: Robert Fulton (Pennsylvania)
1790s: experiment steamboat designs while in France
1807: Clermont
- navigated Hudson river
- Technologically and commercially feasibility
Effect:
- upstream commerce possible
- Used Great Lakes (Later Atlantic Ocean)
Introduced in 1811 → 1821: 200 in waters
6
Q
A
7
Q
When was the Erie Canal developed?
A
1825
8
Q
What was the Erie Canal?
A
Complete: 1825
What:
- 363-miles long
- Connected Great Lakes & New York City
- Financed State Government (Governor: DeWitt Clinton)
9
Q
What was the effects of the Erie Canal?
A
- attracted influx farmers migrating from New England
Cities: Buffalo, Rochester, Syracuse
- made NYC → primacy over competing ports→ access to Old Northwest
10
Q
Why was New York more successful economically during the early 19th century?
A
[1] Borrowed money finance programs of canal construction
most bankrupt during the depression in 1837
Result:
- the canal connecting Atlantic states → Ohio → Mississippi
- reduced transportation costs
11
Q
Describe the first economic railroad:
A
First commercial railroad: 1828
- Baltimore and Ohio
- 1860s: 3,000 miles [more rest of the world combined]
12
Q
What was the effects of railroad development during the early 19th century?
A
opened new areas of American interior
stimulated:
- mining coal (fuel)
- iron (railts and trains)
13
Q
When was the telegraph invented?
A
Possible: instantaneous communication
The 1830s: Samuel F.B. Morse
- creator
- artist & amateur scientist NYC
14
Q
How did the invention of the telegraph help business development?
A
- spread flow info
- uniformity to prices in country
15
Q
Describe the migration pattern west from 1790 to 1814:
A
1790 - 1814: 4.5 million people (accross Appalachian Mtn.)
Mostly after War of 1812
- flood hungry land settlers
- 1821: 6 new states (Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Alabama, Mississippi, Maine)
16
Q
What motivated the migration west during 1790 and 1814?
A
Mostly after War of 1812
- flood hungry land settlers
- 1821: 6 new states (Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Alabama, Mississippi, Maine)
17
Q
How did migrants west usually travel?
A
- Cooperated with each other
- build houses and barns
- communities
18
Q
What streams of migration took place during the early 19th century?
A
Stream One:
- From: South
- To: create Cotton Kingdom of Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Arkansas
Stream Two:
- From: Upper South
- To: Southern Ohio, Indiana, Illinois
Stream Three:
- From: New England & New York
- To: northern Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin
19
Q
How did migration across national boundaries work during the early 19th century?
A
National boundaries: little difference
- took land under jurisdiction of foreign countries (Spain, Mexico, Britain, Indians)
20
Q
What led to the Adams-Onís Treaty of 1819?
A
1810: Americans (West Florida) rebelled & seized Baton Rouge > US annexed area
- Drive acquisition of East Florida → started Georgia & Alabama planters
wanted: eliminate a refuge for fugitive slaves & hostile Indians
1818: Andrew Jackson led troops into the area
International crisis
- battle of horse executed 2 British traders & Indian chiefs
[1] Andrew withdrew
[2] Spanish realize not defend territory
[3] Adams-Onís Treaty of 1819
- sold territory to US
21
Q
What was the Adams-Onís Treaty of 1819?
A
International crisis
- battle of horse executed 2 British traders & Indian chiefs
[1] Andrew withdrew
[2] Spanish realize not defend territory
[3] Adams-Onís Treaty of 1819
- sold territory to US
22
Q
How was the Old Northwest an example of a “borderland” before the War of 1812?
A
- meeting ground
- Cultural boundaries remained unstable & political authority uncertain
Result: develop internal borderland
23
Q
How was the Ohio River a boundary between slave territories during the early 19th century?
A
Northwest Ordinance of 1787: prohibited slavery in Old Northwest
Boundary: Between Free and Slave Society
- Slave State: *Kentucky
- Non-slave: (southern counties) *Ohio, Indiana, Illinois
- key battleground (politically) regarding slavery
Region northern:
- similar Kentucky (food, speech, settlement)
24
Q
How did developments in the North and South compare in the early 19th century?
A
North and South:
- Market revolution & westwards expansion → simultaneous
Cotton Kingdom:
- most dynamic feature of American economy
25
How did cotton connect the North and South of the Union during the early Industrial Revolution in America?
*began in England*
North: centered on Factories producing **cotton textiles**
* required _Cotton_ → produced in Lower South
26
Who invented the Cotton Gin?
**1793**: **_Cotton Gin_**
_Who_: **Eli Whitney**
* Yale graduate worked in Georgia as a private tutor
_What_: Gin quickly separated the seed from cotton
27
What was the implications of the the Cotton Gin's invention (2)?
1. **Coupled with rising demand of cotton**
2. **revolutionized American slavery**
## Footnote
*Many Americans thought slavery will die out after tobacco exhausted the soil*
28
How was land in the South monopolized after the War of 1812?
*Monopolization of Fertile Land*
After the War of 1812: _The federal government moved to consolidate American control Deep South_
1. Defeated Indians cede land
2. encourage white settlement
3. acquire Florida
* * *
_Wealthy planters:_ **monopolize fertile land**
_Poorer_: confined **less productive land**
29
How did cotton alter the slave trade after Congress prohibited the slave trade through the Middle Passage of 1808?
Result: _massive trade in slaves within_
supply labor force required by the new Cotton Kingdom
* * *
**Organization**:
_From_: Maryland, Virginia, South Carolina
_To_: Mobile, Natchez, and New Orleans
* slave coffles common
* destruction family ties for African-Americans
30
How did an integrated economy develop in the North during the early industrial revolution?
What was the result (2)?
(North) _Market Revolution_ + _Westward expansion_ = **integrated economy**
1. commercial farming
2. manufacturing cities
31
How were farmers in the Old Northwest drawn into the Market Economy during the early 19th century and what was the result?
farmers drew into the market economy
_why_:
1. web of transportation
2. credit to eastern centers of commerce and banking
_Result_:
1. increased focus on growing crops and raising stock = SALE
2. no longer for personal usage
32
How did loans integrate Western Farmers into the market economy (1840s-1850s)?
* originated with eastern banks
* *1840s-1850s*: insurance companies financed acquisition of land and supplies & fertilizer
33
What were the *steel plow* and its effects?
1837: Invented by **John Deere**
**1850s**: Mass-production
Result:
* rapid subduing water prairies
![]()
34
When was the Reaper?
1831: invented by **Cyrus McCormick**
35
How did eastern and western farmers compare during the early industrial revolution?
_Eastern Farmers:_ produced fruit, vegetables, and dairy products
_Western Farmers_: Wheat and corn
*Eastern farmers not grow wheat and corn as cheaply as westerners*
36
What was the greatest western city in the 1860s, and how did it compare to the rest of the Union?
**Chicago** (greatest western city)
1860: 4th largest city (due to railroad)
37
Why was *Cincinnati* nicknamed Porkopolis?
Western Cities: Cincinnati:
"**Porkopolis**:" named after slaughterhouses
1000s pigs slaughtered each year proceeded for shipment to east
38
How did Urban Centers change due to the market revolution?
merchants, bankers, craftsmen \> took advantage of economic opportunity created by expanding market among commercial farmers
39
40
How did the nature of work change due to the Market Revolution?
Wanted to [1] **_reduce labor costs**_ & [2] _**increase production_**
1. gathered artisans into large workshops
2. (past: create an entire product) now: _labor process broken into steps_
* pressure from supervisors
* pressure for greater output at lower wages
41
How did "Factory Systems" surpass traditional craft production?
1. Large group of workers
2. replaced hands with power-driven machinery
42
When was the fist factory in America established; by who?
1790: Samuel Slater (Pawtucket, Rhode Island)
43
What type of working shedule did the first factory use?
***_"Outwork system:_***
1. prudcted yarn in factories
2. send to traditional hand-loom weavers to be woven
System: _typified early industry_
Later: _entire manufacturing process in one factory_
44
Why did the first factories in America focus on textile production? (early 1800s)
_Why_: cutoff from British imports (due to Embargo of 1807 & War of 1812)
* 1814: constructed in Waltham, Massachusetts
45
How created the factory in Waltham, Massachusetts during 1814. What factory was it?
Who: Boston Associates
**1812**: created entire factory town (included city of Lowell in 1836)
* textile factories
* all phases of production
46
What was the "fall line" and why were the fist factories established here?
Location of the first Factories: [including Pawtucket, Waltham, Lowell]
Along "_FALL LINE_"
**waterfalls** & **river rapids** harnessed to provide power for spinning and machinery
47
How did steam power in the 1840s effect factory locations?
**1840**: steam power
* factories located in towns near the coast
* ex: New Bedford, Philadelphia, Chicago
48
What was the "American system of manufacturers?"
system production relied on mass production of **_interchangeable parts_**
49
What was New England textile mills original workforce?
Females and young children
50
Describe the nature of work for women at *Lowell* during the early 19th century?
Lowell: **young women** (unmarried) from Yankee farms
* convinced parents: owners set up boarding houses
* strict rules & lecture halls & free time
**_frist time history large numbers of women left home to participate in public world_**
51
Why was women working at Lowell significant historically?
frist time history large numbers of women left home to participate in public world
52
Who were the "Mill Girls" in the early 1800s?
"Mill Girls":
* complained: [1] long hours & [2] low wages
* valued opportunity
* young women (unmarried) from Yankee farms
**not permanent class of factory workers \> few years \> married, return home, move west**
53
How did migration to the US change from 1790 to 1860? Who were the people? Where did they mostly go?
**1790-1830:** immigrants small part pop
**1840-1860:** 4 million people entered the US
* Majority Ireland & Germany
* 90% to northern states (not have to compete slave labor)
54
What 4 things contributed to the influx of migrants in the US during the Market Revolution?
1. **(Europe) modernization of agriculture and industrial revolution \> disrupted patterns of life**
2. **Introduction oceangoing seamships & railroad**
3. **America's political & religious freedom attractive**
4. **Running from disaster**
55
How did Europeans modernization of agriculture and industrial revolution cause migration to the US?
1. pushed peasants off land
2. eliminating jobs of craft workers
56
How did the steamboat encourage migration to the US (1800s)?
long-distance travel easier
57
How was America's political & religious freedom attractive during the early 19th century?
political refugees
58
What was the Great Famine of 1845-1851?
How did it affect immigration to the US?
**_Great Famine of 1845-1851:_**
Ireland: **blight destroyed potato crop**
1. 1 million people starved
2. 1 million emigrated
* lacked industrial skills & capital: low-wage unskilled jobs
59
Describe the nature of Irish immigrants in the US during the industrial revolution?
_Men_: build railroads, canals, common laborers, servants, longshoremen, factory operatives
_Women_: servants to Americas
The 1850s: Lowell \> r*eplaced Yankee women with Irish families*
60
Describe German migration to the US during the Market Revolution?
second largest group
**more skilled than the Irish**
* some in tight-nit eastern cities
* In west: craftsmen, shopkeepers, farmers
*"German Triangle:"*
1. Cincinnati, St. Louis, Milwaukee
2. large German pop
61
Where did Scandivanian migrants during the Market Revolution go to?
Old Northwest
62
What juxtaposed ideas of migration existed in the US during the Market Revolution?
The idea of US:
1. refuge those seeking economic opportunity
2. escape from oppression
Idea coexist with **suspicion and hostility to foreigners**
63
How did Archbishop John Hughes try to make Catholicism more assertive in the US? [4]
1. **condemned usage of Protestant King James Bible in schools**
2. Urged Catholic parents send children to parochial school
3. wanted the government to pay for schools
4. Wanted **win converts** from Protestantism
64
How did protestants view Archbishops John Hughes's actions in the 1830s?
Raised questions about national identity
Catholics \> **threatened American institutions and freedom**
65
What was "*A Plea for the West"* about and what was it in response to?
Reaction to Archbishop John Hughes's actions.
**1834**: Lyman Beecher
* prominent Presbyterian minister
* published: "*A Plea for the West*"
warned Catholics seeking domination of America
Inspired a mob to burn Catholic convent in city
66
What nativist stereotypes developed towards the Irish due to the migration influx in the 1840s and 1850s?
Irish influx of 1840-1850: Alarmed Native Americans
*Those feated impact of immigrations → "**nativists**"*
Blamed immigrants for:
1. Urban crime
2. Political corruption
3. fondness for intoxicating liquor
4. undercuttiving native-born skilled laborers
67
How did nativism compare in 1840 vs. 1850?
**1840s**: Expressed politics and streets
**1850s**: national political movement
68
Describe American law during the market revolution?
**[1]** **supported entrepreneurs**
**[2] shielded entrepreneurs from:**
1. interference by local government
2. liability for some less desirable results of economic growth
69
How did corporations become central to the economy during the Market Revolution?
Corporate form of businees → central economy
1. firms - special privilages
2. charters form government
3. investors/directors not directly liable for debts
70
How did the American public view corporations during the Market Revolution? How did the government respond?
**Distrust...**
Government response:
[1] courts upheld validity
[2] Established firms tries limit competition
71
What happened during ***Dartmouth College v. Woodward*** (1819)?
[John Marshall's Supreme Court:](https://www.notion.so/Chapter-Eight-812a1a4b2fda474ab65764fabbdf182a)
**a defined corporate charter issued by state legislatures as contracts**
* future lawmakers not alter or rescind
72
Gibbon v. Odgen (1824)?
Court struck down monopoly the NY legislature had granted for steamboat navigation
* unconstitutional
* Congress exclusive authority for regulating interstate commerce
73
How did the new chief of justice, _Roger B. Taney_, change the [*Gibbon v. Ogden*](https://www.notion.so/Chapter-Nine-aabe085175e54484b554df94a675d422#f48d4fe00975427ab995e098f6a51ef1) (1824) case in **1837**?
Ruled Massachusetts legislature:
1. not infringe charter of existing company constructed bridge over Charles River
2. empowered second company build a competing bridge
_Taney argument:_ legitimate interest promoting transportation and prosperity
74
How did the Market Revolution reinforce old ideas of freedom?
Reinforce some older ideas freedom & helped create new ones:
1. westwards expansion
2. market revoltion
75
What was John L. O'Sullivan's "**Manifest destiny**?"
*NY journalist*
coined [**1845**]: "**manifest destiny**"
* US divinely appointed mission
* Occupy North America
* "last home freeborn American"
76
How did John L. O'Sullivan's "[manifest destiny](https://www.notion.so/Chapter-Nine-aabe085175e54484b554df94a675d422#f588beca8eb446c180d1b15d279d9c1c)" connect old ideas of freedom with the new?
Americans believed settlement to West:
* **prevent the US becoming Europe** (with fixed social classes, and poor)
West:
1. more land
2. less oppressive factory labor
3. increased opportunity economic independence
77
How did the competitive world of the market revolution influence freedom?
1. self-directed individual seeking economic advancement
2. personal development
78
What were Transcendentalists?
**Insisted on the primacy of individual judgment over existing social traditions and institutions**
Who: Ralph Emerson, Henry David Thoreau
79
What was Henry David Thoreau's views on transcendentalism?
**The primacy of individual conscience:**
* political
* social
* personal
* find own way rather than following the crowd
Modern society → stifled individual judgment:
* trapped jobs
* no time contemplate beauties of nature
80
What was Henry David Thoreau's ***Walden*** (1854) about?
* retreated 2 years cabin on Walden Pond (near Concord)
* wrote an account of experiences
* Market revolution:
degrading American values and nature
"genuine freedom" lay within
81
what was the Second Great Awakening?
**Religious Revivals**
religious underpinning to the celebration of personal stuff
82
When did the Second Great Awakening begin and when was its peak?
Begining: turn of the century
* Religious leaders alarmed low levels of church attendance in youth
Peak: **1820s and 1830s**
**Reverend Charles Grandison Finney** → month-long revival meetings
* *similar to evangelists preachers of the [**First Great Awakening**](https://www.notion.so/Chapter-Four-c275817ebeb04defba035743e78bcb6e)*
* warned hell in vivid imagery and promises of salvation
83
What was Reverend Charles Grandison Finney's contribution to the Second Great Awakening?
**Reverend Charles Grandison Finney** → month-long revival meetings
* *similar to evangelists preachers of the [**First Great Awakening**](https://www.notion.so/Chapter-Four-c275817ebeb04defba035743e78bcb6e)*
* warned hell in vivid imagery and promises of salvation
84
How did the Second Great Awakening make Christianity a mass enterprise?
Independence: 2,000 ministers
1845: 40,000 ministers
* Methodists and Baptists massive growth
* Methodists largest group (1 million)
* all levels of society
85
How did revivalist ministers use the market revolution to spread their message?
* raised funds
* preaching tours by canal, steamboat, railroad
Shaped personal spiritual destinies resonate with spread of market values
86
What ideas regarding the market revolution did revivalists oppose? (2)
1. Railed against greed
2. Indifference to poor as sins
87
What was Reverend Charles Grandison Finney's idea of "controlled individualism?"
* importance of industry, sobriety
* self-dicipline
88
Who and how created the Church of Jesus Christ and Latter-Day Saints?
**The 1820s**: founded **Joseph Smith**
* farmer upstate NY
* the youth experienced religious visions
Creation of religion:
1. "saw" gold plated covered strange writing
2. translated published in ***The Book of Mormon***
89
What is the *Book of Mormon* about?
Story three families:
* traveled Middle East to America (Native American tribes)
* Jesus appeared in one group after the death
* The second coming of Christ takes place in the New World
* Smith: God's prophet
90
How was Mormonism different and similar to other religious beliefs during the Second Great Awakening?
_Similarities to other denominations:_
1. focus on the family
2. community basis faith
_Controversial doctrines (due to Smith's visions):_
1. polygamy
2. Smith 30+ marriages
3. Absolute control over followers
91
What events during 1839 and 1844 challenged the Mormon cult
_1839_: Settled Nauvoo, Illinois
_1844_: Smith arrested inciting riots destroyed anti-Mormon newspapers
* murdered in jail
92
What did Smith's successor, Brigham Young, do with the Mormon church in the 1850s?
1. led 2,000 followers to Utah
2. **1852**: 16,000 Mormons in Utah
93
What broader implications did Mormonism have and reveal about American society?
1. limits religious toleration
2. opportunity offered by religious pluralism
94
What idea became the cornerstone of American freedom during the Market Revolution?
**Right to Compete for Economic Advancement**
Celebrate opportunities open to "self-made man"
* Those who achieved stuff → due to intelligence and hard work (*not hereditary privilege)*
95
96
What new opportunities for farmers, craftsmen, and talented men arose during the Market Revolution?
* **clerks, accountants, other office employees** (Boston & NY)
* **New opportunities for farmers:**
opportunities in America and abroad
* **New skilled craftsmen:**
***Thomas Rodgers**: machine builder establish successful locomotive factory in Paterson, New Jersey*
* **New opportunities for talented men:**
Law, medicine, teaching
1820s: 10,000 physicians in US
97
How did the Market Revolution fail blacks?
free blacks excluded new economic opportunities
* discrimination
* poorest places of NY, Phili, Cincinnati
subject assault by white mob
98
Describe the development of black institutions during the Market Revolution:
Institutions:
* barred schools and public facilities
Own institutional life:
centered **mutual-aid** & **educational societies**
* independent churches (African Methodist Episcopal Church)
99
How did social mobility during the Market Revolution compare between whites and blacks?
_White people:_ look forwards to the life of economic accumulations and individual advancement
_Black people:_
**[1]** Time of abolition in North: **slaves craft skills**
White view:
1. freed slaves as low-wage competitors
2. wanted to bar them from skilled employment
**[2]** **Refuse hired for anything but menial positions**
**[3]** **Whites do not want to be served by blacks**
2&3:
* the rapid decline in economic status
**[4] Not access the West**
1. Federal law: bar access to public land
2. **1860** 4 states: prohibited entering territory altogether
100
What downwards social mobility did blacks experience during the Market Revolution?
_Black people:_
**[1]** Time of abolition in North: **slaves craft skills**
White view:
1. freed slaves as low-wage competitors
2. wanted to bar them from skilled employment
**[2]** **Refuse hired for anything but menial positions**
**[3]** **Whites do not want to be served by blacks**
2&3:
* the rapid decline in economic status
**[4] Not access the West**
1. Federal law: bar access to public land
2. **1860** 4 states: prohibited entering territory altogether
101
What happened to the "female role" during the Market Revolution when the idea of the household as the center of production declined? (4)
**[1] women traditional roles undermined by the availability of mass-produced goods**
**[2] moved from household to factory**
**[3] a new view of femininity:**
Glorified women's ability to create a private environment outside tensions of the market economy
**[4]** **Woman's place at home**
"Home:" no productive functions
* sustain nonmarket values (*love, friendship, mutual obligation)*
* provide men with a shelter from market economy
102
How did [republican motherhood](/e927c6cec6ce46a8b130d58d2cdea403#6bcaf0cdca274e64a34a16a7b594edcc) evolve during the Market Revolution?
_CULT OF DOMESTICITY_
*Cult of True Womanhood*
19th-century ideology: "virtue" and "modesty" as qualities essential to proper womanhood
* modest
* submission
* complete obedience to the husband
* domesticity
* avoidance of personal/intellectual pursuits
103
What was the "cult of domesticity" during the Market Revolution?
_CULT OF DOMESTICITY_
*Cult of True Womanhood*
19th-century ideology: "virtue" and "modesty" as qualities essential to proper womanhood
* modest
* submission
* complete obedience to the husband
* domesticity
* avoidance of personal/intellectual pursuits
104
What social factors contributed to the cult of domesticity during the Market Revolution?
**[1]** Females more power of personal affairs
* more men let home
**[2]** Declining birthrate
* conscious decision million women limit number children
105
What were the disadvantages for females during the Market Revolution?
**[1] Not freely complete for employment**
* only low-paying jobs available
**[2] Married women still no sign independent contracts or sue**
**[3] Husbands controlled wages**
* * *
Poor people: entire family need to work
* domestic servants
* factory workers
* seamstresses
106
what badge of respectability did middle-class women have during the Market Revolution?
**Badge respectability stay at home**
Middle-class neighborhoods develop:
* merchants, factory owners, professionals*
* domestic servants do housework
large employment category for women
107
What was the idea of a "family wage" during the Market Revolution?
* rarely mentioned: housewives, domestic servants, females outworkers,
The popular idea of social justice: male head of the household → command **"family wage"**
* support wife and children
108
Who opposed the Market economy?
Who: **surviving members of the revolutionary generation**
* feared obsession personal economic gain
* undermining devotion public good
109
What economic downturns occurred from the War of 1812 to 1840?
How was it perceived as a loss of freedom?
[War of 1812](https://www.notion.so/Chapter-Eight-812a1a4b2fda474ab65764fabbdf182a) - the 1840s:
**1819**: the sharp economic downturn
**1837**: depression
* ups and down in-between
1. employment irregular
2. businesses failed
* * *
Result: _widened gap between:_
1. merchants and industrialists
2. factory workers
110
Why were the Workingmen's Parties created in the 1820s?
1. alarmed erosion traditional skills
2. threat dependence wage earners
111
What were the Workingmen's Parties' objectives in the 1830s?
_Objective_:
mobilize lower-class support candidates press:
* free public education
* end imprisonment for debts
* legislation limiting work to 10 hours
112
How did rising prices in the 1830s encourage Workingmen's Parties?
1. union organizations spread
2. strikes
_Demands_:
1. higher wages
2. shorter wages
3. free homesetead settlers on public land
113
What happened during the "Burial of Liberty" in 1835 NY and in 1834 in Lowell?
**1835**: (NY) 20 men convicted under common law conspiracy
* sought higher wages
* inspired "burial of liberty"
* * *
**1834**: mill women at Lowell
* protest reduction in wages
(Again) **1836**: raised price of boarding
114
What is one of the critiques of the Market Revolution?
Rooted; idea small producer and identification of freedom with economic independence
[1] market economy challenge self-improvement
