Chapter 01: A New World (7000 BCE → 1680) Flashcards
The First Americans Indian Freedom and European Freedom The Expansion of Europe Contact The Spanish Empire The French and Dutch Empires
1
Q
From who are native Americans descendants and how did they reach the Americas (When)?
A
- descended from bands of hunters crossed Bering Strait (land bridge) 15,000-16,000 years ago
2
Q
Why did the Native Americas migrate 11,000 years ago?
A
Heatwaves caused climate change. They migrated to Southern America, and their large mammal prey (mammoths) died out.
3
Q
When did agricultural development start in the Americas and where? How did this influence their way of life forwards?
A
- 9,000 > agriculture developed in Andes and Mexico spread → **made settled civilization possible** They became settled civilizations after the development of agriculture due to the increased climate and their food sources dying out
4
Q
Where was the Aztec Empire located? What was the capital and its population?
A
Location: Mexico Capital: Tenochtitlan population (capital) : 250,000)
5
Q
Where was the Incan Empire located; what was its population?
A
Location: Peru Population: 12 million
6
Q
How did the North Americans Indian societies compare to that of the Incan and Aztec Empires?
A
North American Indian societies were not as developed. Perfected techniques of: farming, hunting, fishing, political and religious structures
7
Q
How long was the road system the Incan’s developed?
A
2000 miles
8
Q
How did the lack of development in North American societies justify European conquest?
A
- lacked European technologies - Justification for European conquest: they were “backwards”
9
Q
Describe the Mississippi River Valley before it was affected by European presence:
A
- commercial and government center - trade routes > Mississippi & Ohio River valley - mound builders name > for large earthen burial mounds created - *city size larger New York and Philadelphia in 1800s*
10
Q
Who were the “mound builders”?
A
named for their large earthen burial grounds
11
Q
How did the city Cahokia compare to New York in the 1800s?
A
Cahokia population: (10-30,000 population) city size larger New York and Philadelphia in 1800s
12
Q
When was the cultural peak of the Hopi and Zuni people?
A
900-1200
13
Q
Who were the Western Indians? Did they trade with those in the east?
A
The Hopi and Zuni Indian peoples, who lived in villages (present day Arazona) for about 3000 years. They traded with those in Mexico and Mississippi.
14
Q
Describe the dwellings build by the Western Indians (Including the parameters for Pueblo Bonita)
A
(Present day Arizona) - large multi-family dwellings - dams and canals forwater - trade with Mississippi and Mexico Largest structures: Pueblo Bonita (Chaco Canyon, New Mexico) Specifications: - 5 stories - 600 rooms
15
Q
Why did the splendor of the Hopi and Zuni people decline? What was their response?
A
Decline due to drought: - moved south and east - started desert farming
16
Q
Where did the Pueblo Indians (Hopi and Zuni) get their name?
A
live small villages called Pueblos
17
Q
Where were the Eastern North American Indians located?
A
The Gulf of Mexico through Canada
18
Q
What food did the Eastern North American Indians cultivate?
A
Food: - corn, squash, beans - fish, deer, turkeys
19
Q
What government structure did the Eastern North American Indians have, and how did they interact with tribes around them?
A
Interaction with other groups - trade routes + war & peace - captured, killed people **No centralized authority**
20
Q
During what time period did the Eastern North American Indians Unify? How was unification achieved?
A
15th century - leagues emerged to bring tribes together - (*Southeast)* Choctaw, Cherokee, and Chickasaw > united villages
21
Q
What was the Great League of Peace and who was involved?
A
Period of stability in Pennsylvania where 5 Iroquoix people united Mohawk, Oneida, Cayuga, Seneca, and Onodaga
22
Q
Describe the process where Indians divulged from being independent diverse people to one group:
A
NA = Very diverse - own political and religious beliefs - hundreds languages Idea of Indians as “One People” invented by Europeans - only adopted later on
23
Q
What 4 common characteristics were shared by all Indian religious structutes?
A
- Farming & hunting related 2. **sacred spirits** found inanimate things (animals, plants, water) 3. **Rites**: harness powerful supernatural forces 4. Some people had “powers” [shamans, medicine men]
24
Q
What was one characteristic that European Christianity shared with Indian religions?
A
There is one Creator that is on top of the spiritual hierarchy
25
What role did generosity play in Native American culture (specifically in regard to chieftains)?
## Footnote
Chieftains reputation rely on them sharing land
generosity most valued quality
gift giving essential
Trade \> elaborate ceremonies of gift giving
26
How did farming work in pre-European colonization America?
Village leaders \> gave land for seasonal farming
Hunting grounds claimed by tribes
Communal land
27
How did gender relations between Native Americans and the Europeans differ?
Define materilineal:
Indians:
1. membership of family important for women
2. openly engaged premarital sex
European law \> **man controlled all the property**
Indians would move to where the wives lived
Matrilineal:
_centered on clans or kinship groups in which children became members of the mother’s family, not the father’s._
28
Explain what is meant by the observation that European views on the Indians were always in "EXTREME" terms:
"noble savages" & friendly & superior in some ways
OR
uncivilized /barbaric
29
What were the three motivations Europeans had for thinking the Indians were "barbaric"?
1. RELIGION (lacked it or worshiped devil)
2. LAND USE (Europeans viewed land as potential commodities)
3. GENDER RELATIONS
* saw men as weak
* hunting and fishing, not real work
30
Explain how the Spanish and [English, Dutch, and French] used "land" as a justification for colonization:
Spanish: **right of conquest**
English, Dutch, French: **not actually "used" land - nomadic - since land was communal**
31
What were the two basic components of European "freedom"?
Why did they think the Indians were not "free"?
1. individual autonomy
2. ownership of property
Reasons for change:
* Indians no fixed government/laws
* not follow the European authority model
* lacked order
32
How did Indians define freedom?
Indian Freedom: freedom in a **group**
* kinship ties
* following spiritual values
* mutual obligation
33
34
What moral connotation did Christian - European/Catholic - liberty have?
freedom collection distinct rights \> enjoyed by few
Ideas \> abandon sin in favor for Christ
no religious tolerance
closely tied to economic, political, and social position
35
What was "Christian" Liberty? How did it tie in with the law?
freedom collection distinct rights \> enjoyed by few
Ideas \> abandon sin in favor for Christ
no religious tolerance
closely tied to economic, political, and social position
36
How was Christian liberty separated from secular matter?
Numerous ideas of freedom (old and new)
* Moral connotation
* Religion seperated from secular matters (rights)
Thought superior to Indians
37
What role did the Chruch play in liberty in Europe?
What as the response to dissident thinkers?
Church
* Religions uniformity essential to public order
* Prosecuted dissenters
* decrees about worship and beliefs
38
What was the hierarchy in Europe during the 17th century?
1. King
2. Aristocracy
3. Urban and rural population
39
What was the relation between freedom and lawfulness (according to religious doctrine in pre-colonization Europe)?
Freedom = obedience to the law (of ruler and church)
Therefore: **freedom knowing and fulfilling duties of your place in society**
40
How did the lineage of European relationships compare to that of the Indians?
Indians → Matrilineal
Europeans: Men authority over women and women give up legal identity after marriage
41
What was the legal doctrine COVERTURE?
When women married:
* When married women give up legal identity \> covered by the husband
* women not own poperty
* not control wages
* not divorce
42
43
What were the requirements to be part of the electorate in 17th century Europe?
1. male
2. own property
44
Explain how Europeans freedom in the 17th century rooted from the "freedom" in the Middle Ages?
Freedom from Middle Ages:
* "liberties"
* formal privileges
Ex:
* *self*-*government*
* *exemption from tax*
* *royal decree*
45
Give a short review of freedom and authority in Europe during the 17th century? (women, law, and privileges)
SUMMARY: In Europe, freedom was synonymous with being obedient to the law and respecting your place in the hierarchy. The electorate was property owning males. Men had authority over women and the family; after marriage, women went in to coverture. The "freedom" in Europe was derived from the middle age idea of privileges.
46
What was the reason for European expansion (*from a traders perspective)?*
1. quest for route to China (for silk, tea, spices, porcelain)
2. Wanted to eliminate Islamic middlemen
47
Explain the naval expansions of Admiral Zheng He?
How many voyages, men, and ships?
1405-1433: **_Admiral Zheng He_**
* 7 naval expansions
* Explored East African coast
_First voyage:_
* 62 ships
* 225 support vessels
* 25000 men
48
Why did the Chinese government see fit to stop overseas expansion in the 15th century?
The Chinese government not need overseas expansion \> stopped
* Had enough resources inland
49
What was Portugal's motivation for exploring the Atlantic?
Wanted to get to Asia
50
Explain the significance of the following dates (*In relation to Portuguese expansion)?*
1. ***1434***
2. ***1485***
**1434**: Rased the West African coast
**1485**: Reached Benin
* big city
* created trading poset
51
Which new technologies assisted in Portuguese expansion in the 15th century?
1. Caravels (new ships)
2. Compass
3. Quadrants
52
When and which Europeans explorer found the Cape of Good Hope?
**1487**: Bartholomeu Dias
53
Who was the first European to sail all the way to Indian & when?
**1498**: Vasco da Gama
54
Who were typical African slaves *before the Europeans arrived?*
* criminals
* debtors
* captives of war
55
What basic rights did African slaves have in the 15th century?
Property ownership and the right to marry
56
How many African slaves did the Portuguese buy from 1450-1500?
Around 100, 000
57
Why did Columbus sail west?
Reason for sailing: sailing westwards could reach Asia
58
Which two sources did Columbus rely on for information for his voyage across the Atlantic?
Sources:
1. Marco Polo's account visit to China
2. Bible
59
What were Columbus's motivations for trying to find China? (2)
1. Religious
2. Commercial
60
Why was religion one of Columbus's motivation for sailing?
Wanted to convert Asians to Christinaity
Enlist people for the crusade for Jerusalen (from Muslims)
61
Who provided financial support for Columbus's journey? Why?
**King Fe**
Marriage: (1469)
* united warring kingdoms of Aragon and Castile
1492: ***Reconquista***
* wanted to reconquer Spain from Moors, African Muslims
62
When was the ***Reconquista***?
1492
63
Who were the first people (from Europe) to reach America?
**Vikings**: Sailed from Greenland to Newfoundland around 1000 - established ***Vinland*** (mostly forgotten)
64
When did Columbus arrive at the Bahamas?
October 12, 1492
65
What was *La Isabella* and when was it established?
**1493**: La Isabella
Returned 17 ships and 1000 men = establish an outpost
**Settlement failed**
66
What did Nicolas de Ovando (and when) do for the Spanish expansion in America?
**1502**: _Nicolas de Ovando_ \> permanent base
fist center of the Spanish empire in America
67
Who figured out that the "Indians" were not Asian?
Amerigo Vespucci
68
Who invented the printing press (when)?
Johannes Gutenberg (1430)
69
Who founded **Newfoundland** and when?
**1497**: John Cabot
70
Who claimed Brazil for Portugual?
**1500**: Pedro Cabral
71
What were the three things that inspired Spanish expansionism?
1. wealth
2. national glory
3. spreading Catholicism
72
Who was the first European to see the Pacific Ocean?
1513: **Vasco Nunez de Balboa**
73
Who was the first person who sailed around the World?
1522: **Ferdinand Magellan**
74
When did Hernán Contres conquer the Aztecs?
1519
75
Why were the Aztecs alienated from their neighbors?
Aztecs: **violent** and sacrificed captives \> alienated neighbors
76
What three things allowed Contres to conquer the Aztecs?
1. superior military tech
2. enlisted aid some Aztecs
3. Disease
77
Who conquered the Incan Kingdom ?
Francisco Pizarro
78
What is the **Columbian Exchange?**
What goods when and came?
**_Columbian Exchange:_**
**the transatlantic flow of goods and people**
Goods:
* plants
* animals
* cultures
_From America to Europe:_
* corn, potatoes, tomatoes, peanuts, tabacco
_From Old World:_
* wheat, rice, sugarcone, horses, cattle, pigs, sheep
79
How and which diseases influenced the Native Americas?
Europeans introduced disease:
* smallpox
* influenza
* measles
When from 90 million to 2-5 million
* no antibodies
* Death **80 million people**
80
How large was the Spanish Empire?
*Size of the Roman Empire:*
## Footnote
Andes Mount. \> Mexico \> Caribbean \> Florida
Capital**: Mexico City**
ruins Aztec Tenochtitalan
churches, hospitals, first university NA
81
What was the governing style of the Spanish Empire (In theory)?
how did this deviate in practice?
(Theory) Absolutist rule
power declined 17th century \> **local elite more authority**
82
What was the Spanish Empire's Hierarchy?
1. **King** - central authority
2. **Council of Indies** (body Spanish colonial administration)
3. **Viceroys** in Mexico and Peru
_Catholic Church_ → important role
83
Who were the Royal appointees in the Spanish Empire?
**Creoles:**
* person born in the colonies with European ancestry
84
Who served as the **labor force** in the Spanish Empire?
Native population large enough to serve as a labor source
* outnumbered Spanish
* large area under Indian control
85
What are *haciendas?*
Large-scale farms in New World.
86
How did the New World serve as an opportunity for social advancement (for the Spanish)?
Many Spanish came from Europe
* live of luxury
* Most men (single)
**_Opportunity for social advancement_**
255,000 16th century
total: 750,000
**Jobs**:
* officials
* priests
* professionals
* minor aristocrats
87
Why did Indian women and Spanish men marry? What was the result?
Why did the Crown approve of this?
There were not enough women for the men
Children: **Mestizos** → Person mixed origins
* Crown ordered Spanish women to marry single men
* Intermixing more common
\***Evolved hybrid Culture**
(African, Spanish, Indians)
* Single faith, language, and government
* large area under Indian control
**1514**: _Crown approved interracial marriages_
* Way to bring Christianity to natives
**1600**: _Mestizos_
* large part population
88
How did Europeans - especially Spanish - express that their culture was superior?
Europeans \> thought own culture superior
Methods:
1. Violence
2. Missionary zeal
wanted **Indians abandon own beliefs**
Failures = uncivilized (heathens)
89
What order did Pope Alexander VI give in 1493?
ordered non-Christian divided between Spain and Portugal
90
When did Martin Luther write the *Ninety-Five Theses* and what was it about?
(Additionally) **_1517_**: Protestant Reformation
_Martin Luther_ posted ***Ninety-Five Theses***
* *"List of moral grievances against Catholic church"*
wanted cleanse church of indulgences
people should read the bible themselves
91
Which two occurrences in Europe ignited the Spanish's Holy War and served as a "missionary purpose" for colonization?
1. Spanish Inquisition [1492]
2. Protestant Reformation [1517]
92
What was the Spanish Inquisition?
_Missionary purpose for Colonization:_ HOLY WAR
**1492**: *Spanish Inquisition*
* holy war with Islam
* forced all Muslims and Jews to convert or leave Spain
93
Who - and when - outlawed Indian slavery (*in the Spanish Empire)?*
**1537**: *_Pope Paul III_*
* outlawed Indian enslavement
94
Who wrote "*A Very Brief Account of the Destruction of the Indies*?"
What was the content?
What influence did it have?
**1552: _Bartolome de Las Casas_**
wrote: *"A Very Brief Account of the Destruction of the Indies."*
Casas writing:
* denounced Spain - causing death
* details about "shocking cruelties" by Christians
* thought African labor save Indians
* Spread "**The Back Legend**"
Spain as uniquely brutal colonizer
**Justification other Europeans to colonize**
95
What new laws were passed in the Spanish Empire in **1542**?
1542: New Law
* Brutally improved*
[1] **Indians no longer enslaved**
[2] **abandoned *_encomienda_* system**
* explorers take Indian lands
[3] **established *_repartimiento_* system**
* residents of Indian villages legally free
* entitled to wages
* still fixed amount of work per year
96
What was the *encomienda* system?
explorers take Indian lands
97
What was the *repartimiento* system?
* residents Indian villages legally free
* entitled to wages
* still fixed amount of work per year
98
When and where was the first European settlement in the US established? By whom?
**1508**: First settlement in US - ***_Puerto Rico_***
Leader: **Ponce de Leon**
Motivation: _Gold_
99
When did the Spanish invade Florida? What was their motivations and the Indian's response?
**1513**: _Ponce de Leon went to Florida_
**Repelled by Indians**
Motivations Florida:
* wealth
* slaves
100
Explain Hernando de Soto's expansions in the 1530s and 1540s:
1530s and 1540s: Hernando de Soto \> **Gulf region and Southwest**
* particularly brutal
* rape, torture, kills
* search for Mexico-like place
* **not successful**
Expeditions:
* priests, slaves, livestock
* brought disease, devastation
101
Why did the Spanish explain into Florida in the 16th century? (2)
1. wanted establish **military base** \> combat pirates
2. **forestall French expeditions**
102
When was Jacksonville established?
1562
103
Who was at Fort Caroline in the 1560s?
French Hugonoutes
104
What mission did Pedro Menendez de Aviles go on in 1565?
Who was the beneficiary?
Why did the military base fail?
destroyed _Fort Caroline_
**1562**: Established Jacksonville
other settlements:
* St. Simons Island
* Georgia
* St. Augustine
**1763**: Only 4000 Spanish inhabitants
Failure: _Isolated military base_
105
What expansion - of the Spanish - took place in 1598 to the Southwest?
Who was the leader?
Longer colonize Southwest:
**1598**: _Juan de Oñate_
* led 400 soldiers from Mexico to establish settlement
* Reasons: precious metals
106
107
Explain the course of events in New-Mexico (1598) between Juan de Onate and the Acoma Indians:
At New-Mexico
* Inhabitants of Acoma attacked
* killed nephew and 14 soldiers
**2-Day Siege:**
* killed and captured people
* cut off foot of adult men
_1610_: Back Spain
punished treatment Indians
108
When was New Mexico established?
1680
109
Why was the relationship between the Spanish and Indians bad in New Mexico (1680s)? [2]
1. try take Indians lands
2. tried convert to Catholicism (violence)
3. Inquisition in Spain \> more killing of non-Catholics
110
Who was the leader of the Pueblo Revolt?
Popé (little known)
111
What was the Pueblo Revolt about?
Spanish: Assumed Indians would never unite
**1680**: _Indians united (2000)_
Destroyed century of colonizers work
**_Pueblo Revolt:_**
* most complete victory for natives
* Leader: **Popé** (little known)
* Aim: remove Spanish
United:
* destroyed farms
* killed 400 colonists
most complete victory for natives
112
What happened amongst the Indians after Popé's death in 1690?
Warfare among villages
113
What session the Spanish learn from the Pueblo Revolt? [1]
1. Spanish **more tolerant** towards traditional religious practices
2. demanded **less labor**
114
What relationship did the fur trade demand between Indians and the French (16th century)?
relied _friendly relations_ with Indians
more humane than rivals
most enduring alliances in colonial history
115
What was Samuel de Champlain attitude towards the Indians?
1. denied Indians interior to French
2. wanted peace
116
What liberties were granted to Indians in French Canadia in the 16th century if they converted to Christianity?
Allowed Christian Indians _high degree independence_
* not want to oppress all traditions
* Converted Indians = **full citizenship**
117
What three changed came to Indian life after the French took over in the 16th century?
1. Disease
2. new commodities = transformation from hunting into quest marketable stuff
3. Rivalries among empires
118
Who were the *Métis?*
Children of Indian women and French men
119
What was the relationship between the French and the Indians at the *Great Lakes?*
What was it called?
"Middle Ground" \> Great lakes
## Footnote
**relative equality**
120
When was New Netherlands founded? By whom, and what were their motivations?
**1609**: **_Henry Hudson_**
* Search way to Asia
* Found: _New York Harbor_
New Netherlands
121
Who was Henry Hudson's beneficiary in 1609?
Englishman from the **Dutch East India Company**
122
Who dominated international commerce in the early 17th century?
The Dutch
The Dutch East Indian Company - VOC - monopoly on trade with America
123
Why was Amsterdam the center of the Dutch trading empire?
Shipping and banking system
124
What two "freedoms" did the 17th century the Netherlands have that was not present anywhere else in Europe at the time?
1. Freedom of press
2. Private Religious practices
125
New Netherlands had an elected assembly or town council
True
False
False
126
What did "*half-freedom"* mean in New Netherlands?
pay free company & work
given lands
127
How did freedom for married women in the Dutch Empire compare with that of the Spanish and English in the 16th century?
Independence (in comparison)
married women: **still legal identity**, borrow money, go court
128
How was the Dutch religiously tolerant?
1. no exclusion based on religion
2. private worship
3. not have to attend church
129
What was the official religious body of the Dutch (16th century)?
Dutch Reformed Church
130
Explain what happened when 23 Jews arrived in New Amsterdam in 1654:
**Governor Petrus Stuyvestan** - refused
**1654**: 23 Jews arrive New Amsterdam \> told to leave
1. company overruled him
2. Jews invested lots of money
131
When was New Sweden established?
What happened in 1655?
**1638**: Outpost Delaware - _New Sweden_
claimed operating Swedish flag
**1655**: New Netherlands **seized the colony**
132
What was the Dutch's incentive to TRADE with the Indians rather than conquer them?
Won **Independence from Spain**
* long war
* thought Indians fellow victims of Spain
133
Define *"Borderlands"?*
Borderlands: **Were no one had complete sovereignty**
134
Describe the cultural and political dynamics that existed in Borderlands:
*“a meeting place of peoples where geographical and cultural borders are not clearly defined.”*
1. **Hybrid cultures**
2. **Power unstable** \> continuous struggle establish authority
135
What are the three drivers of history?
1. **Forces / "Great Causes"**
things outside individual control
ex: religion
2. **Accidents and coincidences**
ex: disease
3. **Human design**
ex: war
136
What was the Treaty of Tordesillas? (1494)
Spanish-born **Pope Alexander VI:**
* degree all new land discovered west of 46 degrees → Spain
_**1494**: ***Treaty of Tordesillas***_
* Spanish and Portuguese monarchs adjusted
1. Most South America: Spanish speaking
2. Brazil: Portuguese
137
What begun the Columbian exchange?
Columbus: **sent Taíno Indians to Spain**
* beginning trans-Atlantic movement
Important aspects of conquest:
1. (*accidental)* disease
2. weapons
138
What did the *conquistadors* want?
1. Wealth
2. Conversion to Christianity
139
What was the *economienda* system?
***Economienda:***
1. native laborers
2. tracts of land
***Encomenderos***: person under said system
Plantation Based Agriculture:
* sugar harvests in Caribbean
* natives resist \> **look to African labor**
* Portuguese intermediaries between African and New Spain*
140
What was the caste system in the early spanish empire?
1. Spanish born
2. Mestizos
3. Indain
4. African slaves
141
How did the New World alter the nature of the European economy?
European gains:
1. new foods and items produced in colonies
2. growth of European economy
Shift from **feudalism** \> **capitalist** system
142
Who was Bartolome de Las Casas? How did his views change in 1514?
Originally ***encomendero*** then missionary
* originally, thought natives have to abandon heathen ways
**1514** views changed:
* disturbed treatment of Indians
* not force to covert to Christianity
* wanted to change *requerimiento* system
143
What was the *requerimiento system*, as posed by Las Casas? How did it work in practice?
**Requerimiento**: ultimatum read to natives
1. submit to Spain
2. convert to Christianity
**1542**: **Repartimiento system** replaced encomienda
1. Spanish Indians free by law
2. Right to wages
3. Still required to give to set amount of labor
Little change: _Las Casas believe:_
* right to choose to convert
* right to govern themselves
* writings \> revolts*
144
What was the Valladolid Debate in 1550-1551?
*_called by monarch Charles V_*
**1550-1551**: **Las Casas** captive audience
* support from Spanish monarch and Catholic Church
Opposite side: **Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda**
* support: colonizers and businessmen
* not been to America
* respected philosopher
Sources for argumentation:
* Bible
* ancient writers (Aristotle)
145
What were Sepulveda's arguments, Las Casas arguments, and what did they both agree on?
**Sepúlveda - War is Just**
1. Barbaric and "natural slaves"
2. Indians committed crimes that violated natural law
* cannibalism
* human sacrifice
3. Killed other Indians
4. Indians infidels \> must be taught Christianity
* bible supports forced conversion
**Both**
[1] drew on Bible and other ancient sources for support
[2] Believed Indians should be taught about Christianity
**Las Casas - War is Wrong**
1. Indians rational human beings
* capable of learning and accepting Christianity
* less developed than Europeans
2. Pagans due to ignorance; not heretics
* peacefully persuaded to accept Christianity
3. Spain not right to punish people outside of Spain
4. Indians complex language; number practicing human sacrifice is small
146
What was Las Casas suggestion to replace NA captivitiy and enslavement?
African slaves not granted same rights
**1543**: Las Casas suggested African slaves replace natives
147
How did syncretism happen in the Spanish Empire?
Native Americans and Africans adopted European views in different ways → **hybrid cultures**
West Indies: combined Christianity and Yoruba beliefs
result: ***Santería***
* African traditions
* Roman Catholicism
Similarities:
* Single supreme being
* Africans believed in prayer to lesser gods (Orishas) → linked to Catholic saints
